i R O U T L E D G E HA N D B O O K O F YO G A A N D M E D I TAT I O N S T U D I E S The Routledge Handbook of Yoga and Meditation Studies is a comprehensive and interdisciplinary resource, which frames and contextualises the rapidly expanding fields that explore yoga and meditative techniques. The book analyses yoga and meditation studies in a variety of religious, historical and geographical settings. The chapters, authored by an international set of experts, are laid out across five sections: • • • • • Introduction to yoga and meditation studies History of yoga and meditation in South Asia Doctrinal perspectives: technique and praxis Global and regional transmissions Disciplinary framings In addition to up-to-date explorations of the history of yoga and meditation in the Indian subcontinent, new contexts include a case study of yoga and meditation in the contemporary Tibetan diaspora, and unique summaries of historical developments in Japan and Latin America as well as an introduction to the growing academic study of yoga in Korea. Underpinned by critical and theoretical engagement, the volume provides an in-depth guide to the history of yoga and meditation studies and combines the best of established research with attention to emerging directions for future investigation. This handbook will be of interest to multidisciplinary academic audiences from across the humanities, social sciences and sciences. Suzanne Newcombe is a senior lecturer in Religious Studies at the Open University, UK, and Honorary Director of Inform, an independent charitable organisation which researches and provides information about minority religions and is based at the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at King’s College London, UK. Karen O’Brien-Kop is a lecturer in Asian Religions and Ethics at the University of Roehampton, UK. ii iii R O U T L E D G E HA N D B O O K O F YO G A A N D M E D I TAT I O N S T U D I E S Edited by Suzanne Newcombe and Karen O’Brien-Kop iv First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 selection and editorial matter, Suzanne Newcombe and Karen O’Brien-Kop; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Suzanne Newcombe and Karen O’Brien-Kop to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Newcombe, Suzanne, editor. | O’Brien-Kop, Karen, editor. Title: Routledge handbook of yoga and meditation studies / edited by Suzanne Newcombe and Karen O’Brien-Kop. Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020020123 | ISBN 9781138484863 (hardback) | ISBN 9781351050753 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Yoga. | Meditation. Classification: LCC B132.Y6 R68 2020 | DDC 181/.45–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020020123 ISBN: 978-1-138-48486-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-351-05075-3 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Newgen Publishing UK v CONTENTS ix x xi xii xiv xx Editorial board List of figures List of tables Acknowledgements List of contributors A note on terms and translations PART I Introduction to yoga and meditation studies 1 1 Reframing yoga and meditation studies Karen O’Brien-Kop and Suzanne Newcombe 3 2 Decolonising yoga Shameem Black 13 3 Meditation in contemporary contexts: current discussions Ville Husgafvel 22 4 The scholar-practitioner of yoga in the western academy Mark Singleton and Borayin Larios 37 5 Neoliberal yoga Andrea R. Jain 51 v vi Contents PART II History of yoga and meditation in South Asia 63 6 How yoga became yoga: yoga and meditation up to the classical period Kengo Harimoto 65 7 Buddhist meditation in South Asia: an overview Florin Deleanu 80 8 Tantric transformations of yoga: kuṇḍalinī in the ninth to tenth century Olga Serbaeva Saraogi 102 9 Early haṭhayoga Mark Singleton 120 10 Yoga and meditation in modern esoteric traditions Julian Strube 130 11 Hindu ascetics and the political in contemporary India Raphaël Voix 146 12 Yoga and meditation as a health intervention Suzanne Newcombe 156 PART III Doctrinal perspectives: technique and praxis 169 13 Yoga and meditation in the Jain tradition Samani Pratibha Pragya 171 14 Daoist meditation Louis Komjathy 189 15 Islam, yoga and meditation Patrick J. D’Silva 212 16 Sikhi(sm): yoga and meditation Balbinder Singh Bhogal 226 17 Christianity: classical, modern and postmodern forms of contemplation Michael Stoeber and JaeGil Lee 241 18 Secular discourse as a legitimating strategy for mindfulness meditation Masoumeh Rahmani 255 vi vii Contents PART IV Global and regional transmissions 271 19 Yoga and meditation traditions in insular Southeast Asia Andrea Acri 273 20 Yoga in Tibet Naomi Worth 291 21 The political history of meditation and yoga in Japan Hidehiko Kurita 307 22 Yoga and meditation in Korea Kwangsoo Park and Younggil Park 325 23 Yoga in Latin America: a critical overview Adrián Muñoz 335 24 Anglophone yoga and meditation outside of India Suzanne Newcombe and Philip Deslippe 350 25 The yogic body in global transmission Sravana Borkataky-Varma 366 PART V Disciplinary framings 381 26 Philology and digital humanities Charles Li 383 27 Observing yoga: the use of ethnography to develop yoga studies Daniela Bevilacqua 393 28 Yoga and philosophy: ontology, epistemology, ethics Mikel Burley 409 29 On ‘meditational art’ and maṇḍalas as objects of meditation Gudrun Bühnemann 423 30 The psychophysiology of yoga: characteristics of the main components and review of research studies Laura Schmalzl, Pamela Jeter and Sat Bir Singh Khalsa 31 Meditation and the cognitive sciences Asaf Federman vii 440 460 viii Contents 32 Inclusive identities: the lens of critical theory Karen-Anne Wong 473 33 Yoga: between meditation and movement Matylda Ciołkosz 490 34 Sound and yoga Finnian M. M. Gerety 502 Index 522 viii ix EDITORIAL BOARD Joseph S. Alter, PhD, Professor of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, USA Jo Cook, PhD, Reader in Anthropology, University College London (UCL), UK Louis Komjathy, PhD, Independent Scholar, USA Philipp André Maas, PhD hab., Research Associate, Institut für Indologie und Zentralasienwissenschaften, Universität Leipzig, Germany James Mallinson, PhD, Reader in Indology and Yoga Studies, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London, UK Elizabeth De Michelis, PhD, Independent Scholar and founder of the Journal of Yoga Studies and Modern Yoga Research Network, Italy/France Ulrich Pagel, PhD, Professor of Buddhist Studies, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London, UK Kwangsoo Park, PhD, Professor in the Department of Won-Buddhism,Wonkwang University, Republic of Korea Małgorzata Sacha, PhD hab.,Assistant Professor, Department of Religious Studies, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland Sat Bir Singh Khalsa, PhD, Assistant Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, USA ix x FIGURES 13.1 14.1 14.2 19.1 19.2 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 27.1 29.1 29.2 29.3 30.1 31.1 The four dhyānas Visualising the Northern Dipper The Waterwheel Maitreya carrying out arduous practices; Borobudur, Central Java, c. 8th–9th century One of the directional manifestations of Śiva at Candi Śiva, Loro Jonggrang, Central Java, 9th century A sample stemma codicum An unrooted tree A split network The digital edition, with virāmas considered as significant variants Phalahari Baba, a Rāmānandī tyāgī, performs dhūnī tap A sand maṇḍala for the goddess Tārā, created by Geshe Palden Sangpo as part of the Asia Week 2017 celebration at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill A two-dimensional maṇḍala painted on a canvas surface, showing the goddess Mahāpratisarā at the centre Participant of a maṇḍala meditation workshop A logic model describing the main aspects by which yoga practices develop behavioural skills, change psychophysiological state and modify behaviour and experience Cognitive functions in attentional meditation x 175 198 202 275 276 384 387 387 389 400 428 431 434 450 464 xi TABLES 14.1 The twelve Chinese zoomorphic zodiac signs and twelve ‘double-hours’ of traditional Chinese time measurement 14.2 Triads common to Daoist visualisation techniques 19.1 Aṅgas (limbs) of yoga in selected Old Javanese sources 22.1 Academic papers on yoga published in Korean (2011–2017) 26.1 An ‘insignificant’ variant xi 197 199 277 333 389 xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All books are collaborative projects – and this one was more collaborative than most. Every chapter has been subject to peer review and we would like to express our gratitude to all the anonymous peer reviewers for their time and generosity in making this volume more rigorous. We would like to thank our editor at Routledge, Dorothea Schaefter, and our editorial assistant, Alexandra de Brauw, for their patience and guidance on this project. The SOAS Centre for Yoga Studies, its director, James Mallinson, and project co-ordinator, Martha Henson, have both been invaluable at many stages of this project. We deeply value the collaborative environment and support that has been offered by this Centre. We are also very grateful for the advice and resources of our Editorial Board, whose expertise we have called upon at several stages of the project as well as all the anonymous peer reviewers who made the work better in numerous ways. Thank you all for participating in the unpaid labour of making academic work better. The formation of the editorial vision and chapters was deeply impacted by a workshop held at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in March 2019. Among those who are not represented by a contributing chapter but nevertheless gave substantial input to the workshop and our thinking about this volume as a whole include: Alp Arat, Christèle Barois, Jason Birch, Graham Burns, Matthew Clark, Jo Cook, Lucy May Constantini, James Mallinson, Elizabeth De Michelis, Mariano Errichiello, Jacqueline Hargreaves, Corinna May Lhoir, Firdose Moonda, Ayesha Nathoo, Daniel Simpson, Daniel Stuart, Leslie de Vries, Richard Williams, Ruth Westoby, Theodora Wildcroft and Amelia Wood. Particular thanks are due to Ruth Westoby, Theodora Wildcroft and Jacqueline Hargreaves who were not only enthusiastic participants at the workshop but also allowed us to employ their skills in recording interviews with participants during breaks. Financially, the workshop was directly and indirectly supported by the Strategic Research Investment Fund (SRIF) from the Open University’s Faculty of Arts and Social Science (FASS), the SOAS Centre for Yoga Studies and the European Research Council Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreements No. 639363 (AYURYOG) and No. 616393 (Haṭha Yoga Project).We would especially like to express our gratitude to the Haṭha Yoga Project for their support, encouragement and contributions from their research. xii xiii Acknowledgements We could not have completed this work without the support and encouragement of our colleagues. Specifically, we would like to thank Dagmar Wujastyk, Principle Investigator of the AYURYOG project, for supporting exploration into the foundations of some of the assumptions about what yoga is and has been through history. Suzanne Newcombe would like to express her gratitude for the support and encouragement of Paul-François Tremlett, Graham Harvey and John Wolffe at the Open University in completing this project. She is also grateful for the patience of Eileen Barker and Sarah Harvey in juggling deadlines as this project was completed. We are both grateful to Jane Cooper for her fabulous and much appreciated editorial assistance. Karen O’Brien-Kop would like to thank Ulrich Pagel at SOAS as well as her newer colleagues at the University of Roehampton whose support has been vital in completing this project, especially Laura Peters, Clare Watkins, Simonetta Calderini and Sean Ryan. Thanks to Richard King and Rupert Gethin for expert support in her research, and to Dan Lusthaus for guidance and encouragement in editing this volume. Special thanks are due to Avni Chag for ongoing academic inspiration and motivation. Finally Karen would like to thank all of her students at SOAS and Roehampton, who have made her a better thinker. Suzanne Newcombe would like to express her gratitude to Janet Gyatso whose astute challenges to her intellect and character – and pointedly unanswered questions over twenty year ago – have significantly shaped this work and much of her academic exploration. Most of all she would like to express her deep appreciation for the unfailing support of her family – husband Alaric, daughters Ayesha and Kansas, dog Bella, and parents Jim and Susan Hasselle – for quietly putting up with her working at odd times and encouraging her in so many ways. Karen O’Brien-Kop would like to thank family and friends who supported her through this long project – especially Margaret, Thomas and Trevor O’Brien – but her deepest thanks are reserved for her son, Zohar Kop. This handbook was partially financially supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreements No. 639363 (AYURYOG) and No. 647963 (Haṭha Yoga Project). xiii xiv CONTRIBUTORS Andrea Acri (PhD Leiden University, 2011) is maître de conférences/assistant professor in tantric studies at the École Pratique des Hautes Études (EPHE, PSL University, Paris) since 2016. He studies Śaiva and Buddhist tantric traditions in South and Southeast Asia from a text-historical and comparative perspective. He has published the monograph Dharma Pātañjala (2011, 2017 and the Indonesian edition 2018) and a number of edited volumes, including Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia (2016). Daniela Bevilacqua is a South-Asianist and received her PhD in Civilizations of Africa and Asia from Sapienza University of Rome and in Anthropology from the University of Paris Nanterre. Her PhD research was published by Routledge under the title Modern Hindu Traditionalism in Contemporary India: The Śrī Maṭh and the Jagadguru Rāmānandācārya in the Evolution of the Rāmānandī Sampradāya. She is now a post-doc research fellow at SOAS, working for the ERC-funded Haṭha Yoga Project (2015–2020). Balbinder Singh Bhogal is a professor in religion and holder of the Sardarni Kuljit Kaur Bindra Chair in Sikh Studies (Hofstra University, NY, USA). He focuses on Indic religions, specialising in Sikhi(sm). The tensions between hermeneutics and deconstruction, religion and secularism, animal and saint, mysticism and politics, postcolonial and decolonial, animate his work. Shameem Black is a scholar of literary and cultural studies and a fellow in the Department of Gender, Media and Cultural Studies in the College of Asia and the Pacific at the Australian National University. She is the author of Fiction Across Borders (2010). Her current work explores the cultural politics of yoga to illuminate paradoxes of national identity and cross-cultural practice in an era of globalisation. Sravana Borkataky-Varma, PhD, teaches at Harvard University and the University of North Carolina-Wilmington. She focuses on the esoteric rituals within the larger space of Hindu Śākta tantra. Her works include ‘Red: An Ethnographic Study of Cross-Pollination between the Vedic and the Tantric’ in the International Journal of Hindu Studies (2019) and ‘Taming Hindu xiv xv Contributors Śākta Tantra on the Internet: Online pūjās for the goddess Tripurasundarī’ in Digital Hinduism (2020) ed. Xenia Zeiler, Routledge. Gudrun Bühnemann is a professor in the Department of Asian Languages and Cultures at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA. She has published extensively on South Asian iconography and ritual. Her work on yoga includes Eighty-four Āsanas in Yoga: A Survey of Traditions (with Illustrations) (2007; Russian translation 2009; 2nd edition, 2011; Korean translation, 2011). Mikel Burley is Associate Professor of Religion and Philosophy at the University of Leeds. His publications include A Radical Pluralist Philosophy of Religion: Cross-Cultural, Multireligious, Interdisciplinary (2020), Rebirth and the Stream of Life: A Philosophical Study of Reincarnation, Karma and Ethics (2016) and Classical Sāṃkhya and Yoga: An Indian Metaphysics of Experience (2007). Matylda Ciołkosz is a scholar of religions and Assistant Professor at the Department of Psychology of Religions, Institute for the Study of Religions, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland. Her doctoral research focused on modern postural yoga and the relation between the embodied experience of āsana practice and interpretation of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra. As a longtime yoga practitioner, rock climber and musician, she is more broadly interested in the influence of movement practices on the formation of religious concepts and doctrines. Florin Deleanu (PhD, University of Hamburg) is a professor at the International College for Postgraduate Buddhist Studies in Tokyo. His research focuses on the history of Buddhist meditation and the philosophical traditions of Sarvāstivāda, Sautrāntika and Yogācāra. His publications include a monograph on The Chapter on the Mundane Path in the Śrāvakabhūmi (2006) and studies on ‘Agnostic Meditations on Buddhist Meditation’ (2010), ‘Meditative Practices in the Bodhisattvabhūmi’ (2013), ‘Reshaping Timelessness: Paradigm Shifts in the Interpretation of Buddhist Meditation’ (2017), ‘When Gnosis Meets Logos: The Story of a Hermeneutical Verse in Indian Buddhism’ (2019), among others. He is currently translating the Śrāvakabhūmi and the Laṅkāvatārasūtra. Philip Deslippe is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Religious Studies and a teaching associate in the Department of Asian American Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara, USA where his focus is on Asian, metaphysical and marginal religious traditions in modern America. He has published articles in journals including the Journal of Yoga Studies and Sikh Formations, and popular venues such as Tricycle and Yoga Journal. Patrick J. D’Silva is a lecturer in the Philosophy Department at the University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, USA. His research focuses on Sufism and yoga in South Asia. He is the coauthor (with Carl Ernst) of the forthcoming volume Breathtaking Insights: Indian and Sufi Breath Practices from the Kāmarūpančāšikā to Hazrat Inayat Khan (Richmond,Virginia, Suluk Press). More information is available at patrickjdsilva.com. Asaf Federman is the director of training at Muda Institute, Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, IDC Herzliya, Israel. Asaf is interested in the convergence between Buddhist meditation and psychology and has published a book in Hebrew on mindfulness. His academic publications on free will, skilful means and the modern history of meditation appeared in Religion, Philosophy East and West, and Journal of Buddhist Ethics. xv xvi Contributors Finnian M. M. Gerety is Visiting Assistant Professor of Religious Studies and Affiliated Faculty Member of Contemplative Studies and the Center for Contemporary South Asia at Brown University, USA. His research interests include sound, mantra and ritual in Indian religions. His forthcoming book, This Whole World is OM: A History of the Sacred Syllable in India, is the firstever monograph of the syllable OM, examining how this syllable came to prominence among Brahmin ritualists and then spread over the religious and cultural landscape of early India. He received a doctorate in South Asian Studies at Harvard University (2015) and completed a postdoctoral fellowship at the Institute of Sacred Music at Yale University (2017–2018). Kengo Harimoto is a faculty member at Mahidol University, Thailand. Prior to working at Mahidol, he worked in the Netherlands and in Germany. His MA is from Kyushu University, Japan, and his PhD is from the University of Pennsylvania, USA. His major research interest is in Indian philosophy, especially classical yoga. His further research interests expand into Buddhist philosophy, history of Indian medicine, popular Sanskrit Hindu literature, and others. Ville Husgafvel is a doctoral student in the Study of Religion at the University of Helsinki and a trained MBSR teacher. In his PhD dissertation, he studies the recontextualisation of Buddhist meditation practices in contemporary mindfulness-based programmes. He has published in Contemporary Buddhism (‘The “Universal Dharma Foundation” of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction: Non-Duality and Mahāyāna Buddhist Influences in the Work of Jon Kabat-Zinn’) and Temenos (‘On the Buddhist Roots of Contemporary Non-Religious Mindfulness Practice: Moving Beyond Sectarian and Essentialist Approaches’). Andrea R. Jain is Associate Professor of Religious Studies at Indiana University, Indianapolis (IUPUI), USA, editor of the Journal of the American Academy of Religion, and author of Selling Yoga: From Counterculture to Pop Culture (2014) and Peace, Love, Yoga: The Politics of Global Spirituality (2020). Her areas of research include religion under neoliberal capitalism; global yoga; South Asian religions; sexuality, embodiment and religion; and theories of religion. Pamela Jeter, PhD, is a scientific review officer at the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) at the National Institutes of Health, located in Bethesda, MD, USA. Dr. Jeter received her PhD in Cognitive Science (Experimental Psychology) from the University of California, Irvine, where she studied mechanisms of transfer and specificity in visual perceptual learning. She completed her postdoctoral training at the Johns Hopkins Wilmer Eye Institute, where she studied the therapeutic benefits of yoga on fall risk factors in visually impaired individuals. Dr. Jeter also served as Adjunct Faculty at the Maryland University of Integrative Health, where she taught research literacy and academic publishing practices. Dr. Jeter has presented at professional conferences and community-based groups and received recognition for her work on yoga for the blind. As a yoga practitioner, she has studied Ashtanga yoga for many years with senior teachers. Sat Bir Singh Khalsa, PhD, has been fully engaged in basic and clinical research on the efficacy of yoga and meditation practices in improving physical and psychological health since 2001. He has practised a yoga lifestyle since 1972 and is a certified instructor in Kundalini Yoga as taught by Yogi Bhajan. He is the director of yoga research for the Yoga Alliance and the Kundalini Research Institute, Research Associate at the Benson Henry Institute for Mind Body Medicine, Research Affiliate of the Osher Center for Integrative Medicine and Assistant Professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School in the Department of Medicine at Brigham xvi xvi Contributors and Women’s Hospital in Boston. He has conducted clinical research trials evaluating yoga interventions for insomnia, post-traumatic stress disorder, chronic stress and anxiety disorders and in both public school and occupational settings. Dr. Khalsa works with the International Association of Yoga Therapists to promote research on yoga and yoga therapy as the chair of the scientific program committee for the annual Symposium on Yoga Research and as editorin-chief of the International Journal of Yoga Therapy. He is medical editor of the Harvard Medical School Special Report: An Introduction to Yoga and chief editor of the medical textbook The Principles and Practice of Yoga in Health Care. Louis Komjathy (PhD, Religious Studies, Boston University, USA) is an independent scholar-educator and translator. He researches and has published extensively in Contemplative Studies, Daoist Studies and Religious Studies, with specific interests in contemplative practice, embodiment and mystical experience. He is also founding Co-chair of the Daoist Studies Unit (2004–2010) and the Contemplative Studies Unit (2010–2016) in the American Academy of Religion. In addition to over thirty academic articles and book chapters, he has published nine books to date, including the recent Taming the Wild Horse: An Annotated Translation and Study of the Daoist Horse Taming Pictures (2017) and Introducing Contemplative Studies (2018). His current work explores cross-cultural and perennial questions related to aliveness, extraordinariness, flourishing, transmutation and trans-temporality. He lives in Chicago, Illinois, USA. Hidehiko Kurita is a lecturer at Aichi Prefectural University, Japan and received his PhD in the Department of Religious Studies in Tohoku University, Japan. In Japanese, he has authored several publications on the history of meditation in modern Japan, and co-edited with Tsukada Hotaka and Yoshinaga Shin’ichi Kingendai Nihon no Minkan Seishin Ryōhō (The Mind Cure Movement in Modern Japan) (2019). Borayin Larios is an assistant professor at the Department of South Asian,Tibetan and Buddhist Studies of the University of Vienna, Austria. He authored Embodying the Vedas: Traditional Vedic Schools of Contemporary Maharashtra published in 2017. His current research focuses on popular religion in urban India. JaeGil Lee is the pastor at St. Paul’s United Methodist Church in Newport, RI, USA. He provides support for substance use recovery, counselling, spiritual direction and meditation instruction to his local community. His academic expertise is in the areas of comparative spirituality and interreligious/spiritual dialogue, especially between the contemporary Christian contemplative prayer movement and eastern meditation. This topic is explored in his doctoral dissertation, Sources and Issues in Contemporary Christian Contemplative Prayer: Thomas Keating’s Centering Prayer and John Main’s Christian Meditation. His current interests include the role and place of body in the practice of contemplative prayer and spiritual direction. Charles Li is a postdoctoral fellow at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada. His research is focused on Indian philosophy, but encompasses philology, comparative literature and the history of ideas. He is currently involved in developing methods and software for producing philological research that is more open, empirically grounded and reproducible. Adrián Muñoz is a lecturer of South Asian Religions at El Colegio de México, and he specialises in yoga literature, hagiography and history. In Spanish, he has authored La Piel de Tigre y la Serpiente: La Identidad de los Nāth-yoguis a Través de sus Leyendas (2010) and Radiografía xvii xvi Contributors del Hathayoga (2016), and co-authored Historia Minima del Yoga (forthcoming). In English, he coedited with David N. Lorenzen Yogi Heroes and Poets: Histories and Legends of the Naths (2011). Suzanne Newcombe is a senior lecturer in Religious Studies at the Open University, UK, and honorary director of Inform, based in Theology and Religious Studies at King’s College London. She has published on topics relating to the popularisation of yoga and ayurveda including the monograph Yoga in Britain: Stretching Spirituality and Educating Yogis (2019). She researched the transformations of yoga and ayurveda in modern India as part of the ERCfunded AYURYOG project from 2015–2020. Karen O’Brien-Kop is a lecturer in Asian Religions and Ethics at the University of Roehampton, UK, and was formerly a senior teaching fellow at SOAS University of London. She received her PhD from SOAS, titled Seed and Cloud of Liberation in Buddhist and Pātañjala Yoga: An Intertextual Study and continues to research classical Sanskrit texts on yoga and meditation. She has published articles in Religions of South Asia and the Journal of Indian Philosophy and is currently working on a monograph on classical yoga and Buddhism. Kwangsoo Park is a professor in the Department of Won-Buddhism at Wonkwang University in the Republic of Korea. He is now serving as the dean of the Graduate School of Asian Studies, the Dean of Kyohak College and the director of the Research Centre of Yoga Studies at Wonkwang University. He leads academic research both as the president of Korean Association for Religious Studies and the president of Korean Society of Yoga Studies. He received his MA in Religious Studies at the University of Iowa and received his PhD in Buddhist Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in the USA. Younggil Park is a research professor at Geumgang University, Republic of Korea. In Korean, he has authored A Theory and Praxis of Hat.hayoga (2013), Hat.hapradīpikā: An Annotated Translation of Hat.hapradīpikā, Jyotsnā (2 vols., 2015) and Hat.hayoga Literature (2019). Samani Pratibha Pragya is a research assistant at SOAS University of London (UK) working on Terāpanth data pertaining to the Jaina-Prosopography project. She received her PhD on Prekṣā Meditation: History and Methods from SOAS. Her research interests include the modern development of Jain yoga and meditation. At present, she is head of the Jain World Peace Centre, London, and is an authorised Prekṣā yoga and meditation teacher. She initiated a rural development project at Tamkore, Rajasthan, and established Mahapragya International School there. Masoumeh Rahmani is a lecturer in Religious Studies at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. She previously held a research associate position in the Brain, Belief and Behaviour lab at Coventry University. Rahmani received her PhD from the University of Otago, New Zealand, in 2017. Her research interests include religious conversion and disengagement, meditation groups and Asian religions in non-Asian contexts. Olga Serbaeva Saraogi is an academic associate at the Institute of Asian and Oriental Studies – South Asia, University of Zurich, Switzerland. Her research interests include subjects such as Śaiva tantric texts, yoginīs, and computational linguistic methods applied to Sanskrit texts. Laura Schmalzl, PhD, is Associate Professor at Southern California University of Health Sciences, USA. Her research interests lie in furthering our understanding of the mechanisms xviii xix Contributors through which yoga-based practices can impact cognitive functioning, body awareness and emotional self-regulation. She is Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Yoga Therapy, and also a dedicated yoga practitioner and certified yoga instructor. Mark Singleton is Senior Research Fellow on the Haṭha Yoga Project, SOAS, University of London. His books include Yoga Body, the Origins of Modern Yoga Practice (2010), Roots of Yoga (2017, with James Mallinson) and several edited volumes of scholarship on yoga. Michael Stoeber is Professor of Spirituality and Philosophy of Religion at Regis College and the University of Toronto, Canada. His current research explores topics on the intersection of spirituality and art, comparative mysticism and issues in meditation, prayer and yoga across religious traditions. Alongside three books, recent essays have appeared in the International Journal of Practical Theology (‘Theopoetics as Response to Suffering: The Visual Art of Käthe Kollwitz in the Reformation of Practical Theodicy’), in Hindu-Christian Studies (‘Issues in Christian Encounters with Yoga’), and in Toronto Journal of Theology (‘Mysticism in The Brothers Karamazov’). Julian Strube specialises in the relationship between religion, science and politics in the context of esotericism. He has worked on socialist, National Socialist and völkisch relations to esotericism, before focusing on Tantra in colonial Bengal within the context of a global religious history. His current project at the University of Münster revolves around exchanges between Bengali intellectuals and American and British Unitarians. Raphaël Voix is a social anthropologist and research fellow at the National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), and a member of the French Institute of Pondicherry (MAEE/CNRS) and the Centre for Indian and South Asian Studies (CEIAS), Paris. His research focuses on sectarian Hinduism in West Bengal. He has co-edited Filing Religion: State, Hinduism and Courts of Law (with G. Tarabout and D. Berti) and published in various academic journals and edited books. Karen-Anne Wong, PhD, currently works as a casual lecturer and yoga teacher in Sydney, Australia. Karen completed her PhD in 2017 at The University of Sydney, examining children’s yoga practices in Australia. Karen has recently published work on donor conception and race in The Journal of Bioethical Inquiry and has a chapter co-authored with Dr. Kerryn Drysdale entitled ‘Sensory Ethnography’ in the Sage Encyclopaedia of Research Methods (2019). Karen’s research interests include embodiment, childhood, dis/ableism, gender, sexuality, health and wellbeing practices and ethnography. Naomi Worth is a doctoral candidate in Religious Studies at the University of Virginia, USA. She is a textualist and ethnographer focused on the yoga traditions of Tibet and India and their relationship to mind-body philosophy. She is currently developing a website to compare mindbody philosophies across cultures and disciplines. xix xx newgenprepdf A NOTE ON TERMS AND TRANSLATIONS We have included transliteration of non-English terms in languages such as Sanskrit, Chinese, Tibetan and Japanese. Some authors have chosen to occasionally employ the script of the languages they work in, such as Devanagari for Sanskrit or logograms for Chinese. Some chapters use Hindi, Prakrit, Pali or Bengali rather than Sanskrit terms in transliteration, which creates some variance in spellings: for example, āsana in Sanskrit is āsan in Hindi. Where a chapter engages substantially with a non-English technical vocabulary, we have included a short glossary of terms at the end of the chapter.We have reserved diacritics (especially in Sanskrit and Hindi) for chapters where the author employs them because they engage directly with primary sources in original languages. xx 1 PART I Introduction to yoga and meditation studies The overall aim of this section – and the volume as a whole – is to think about what can be gained by reflecting on meditation and yoga together as closely related (and overlapping) techniques. Here we highlight some of the main themes and contexts in which the academic study of yoga and meditation currently exists. In particular, we want to draw attention to the contemporary, global, postcolonial and neoliberal social contexts and power structures in which we all operate. But, additionally, we want to emphasise the importance of recognising the complex relationships between individual scholars’ identities and the construction of academic debates and disciplines. 2 3 1 REFRAMING YOGA AND MEDITATION STUDIES Karen O’Brien-Kop and Suzanne Newcombe Introduction The study of yoga and meditation is not new. The techniques that we now associate with the terms ‘meditation’ and ‘yoga’ are documented over thousands of years in nuanced explorations by practitioners and theorists. However, the ‘outsider’ study of these practices is intimately connected with the knowledge construction projects of European modernity. As the Peruvian philosopher Aníbal Quijano (amongst others) has pointed out, modernity was, for the majority of the world, an experience of coloniality; the conceptual frameworks of European modernity co-arise with the experiences, cultural oppressions and transformations of colonisation (Quijano 2000). In many ways our understandings of practices of meditation and yoga, and their popularised meanings, have been filtered and distorted through the epistemic frameworks that have become dominant and globalised during this period. By examining the study of meditation and yoga through a range of disciplines and in a number of specific cultural and historical contexts, we hope to begin a conversation that challenges assumptions created by cultural positioning, disciplinary training and the blind spots to which they almost inevitably give rise. This volume is aimed at students and educators and aspires to showcase the range, depth and complexity of current, global academic research on yoga and meditation. As such, this volume mostly takes the stance of the ‘outsider’ perspective to the study of yoga and meditation, although it does include many insider, theological and blended viewpoints. In the past few decades and in line with the rapid expansion of globalised meditation and yoga, there has been a correlative increase in academic studies of yoga and meditation from a range of perspectives. Recent research has been published not only from within established disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, indology, religious studies and medical-based science, but also from newly emerging and interdisciplinary approaches, such as political theory (Kale and Novetzske forthcoming) or critical and cultural race studies (e.g. Gandhi forthcoming). The increased academic interest reflects that yoga and meditation studies is significantly shifting from a submerged sub-field within selected disciplines to a visible field of study in its own right, one that is both multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary and increasingly transregional. The chapters in this volume not only consolidate the contemporary field of academic knowledge on yoga and meditation, but also push the boundaries of existing research and explore emerging and future directions of study. By investigating the meanings and assumptions behind practices associated with yoga and meditation in a variety of contexts, in specific historical 3 4 Karen O’Brien-Kop and Suzanne Newcombe periods and through different theological and disciplinary lenses, the authors of this volume contribute to a breaking up of siloed knowledge and rigid conceptual frameworks. Historically, the field of yoga and meditation studies has not developed evenly. By the end of the twentieth century, academic study of Buddhism and meditation was firmly established in university departments of area studies and in selected humanities disciplines such as religious studies – and was increasingly a subject of biomedical/psycho-physical studies. However, the academic study of yoga traditions has only just emerged as a distinct category of research in the twenty-first century.This handbook is one of the first attempts to bring into direct dialogue two closely related areas of academic research: meditation and yoga. At times this dialogue has been easier to initiate than at other times – since, for some of the scholars whom we invited, the disciplinary areas of expertise, the questions asked and the assumptions made about their objects of study made it hard to see how their particular scholarly agenda would benefit from being part of interdisciplinary reflections. In an effort to promote interdisciplinary dialogue and awareness between contributors, we organised an authors’ workshop in early 2019, held in London, UK, at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) with support from the Open University.1 In this forum, scholars exchanged comments on the first-draft papers, with the intention of creating a more coherent volume. This workshop was closely informed and supported by two interdisciplinary European Research Council funded projects on the history of yoga in South Asia, namely AYURYOG and the Haṭha Yoga Project. Both of these projects sought to cultivate interdisciplinary methods to shine new light on their subjects through longue durée lenses. For AYURYOG, this was to examine the histories and entanglements of yoga, ayurveda and rasaśāstra (alchemy and iatrochemistry) from the tenth century to the present, focusing on the disciplines’ health, rejuvenation and longevity practices. For the Haṭha Yoga Project, the concern was how to identify the origins of both haṭha and modern yoga through multidisciplinary approaches of philology, ethnography and cultural history – and at times forging interdisciplinary approaches such as ‘embodied philology’, the interpretation of historical texts on āsana with the aid (and limits) of contemporary practitioner bodies. The diversity of the discussion over the course of these two days was inspiring. We hope that the new perspectives generated will have ripple effects on the framing of many of the participants’ research beyond the scope of this particular volume. Both of the editors of this volume work primarily in the field of yoga studies and, although we have aimed to include a broad range of approaches from the field of meditation and contemplative studies, we acknowledge that the content is slightly more weighted towards the topic of yoga. While some chapters are interdisciplinary (see, for instance, Li, Chapter 26, which integrates philology and digital humanities), other chapters are multidisciplinary (Bühnemann, Chapter 29, combines art history, material culture and religious studies) or cross-disciplinary (Gerety, Chapter 34, in part, employs sound studies to elucidate history of religions).2 However, in the last section of the book, which focuses on ‘disciplinary framings’ we also see that the understanding of what yoga or meditation is and does can shift depending on the questions asked and methods of research. For example, a focus on measurable characteristics in psychophysiology yields a different understanding of yoga and meditation than exploring the social context of yoga with the tools of critical theory. The scope of this volume’s essays from scholars around the world ensures that a considerable range of perspectives has been included from across the combined field of yoga and meditation studies and that there is ample opportunity for readers to think and analyse laterally across these complex and intertwined topics, regions, approaches and chronologies. As editors, we also acknowledge that we are situated in the humanities and social sciences, primarily as scholars of religion. The hard sciences are not represented to the extent that we 4 5 Reframing yoga and meditation studies would have liked, but we have two excellent dedicated science-based chapters, one on biomedicine (Chapter 30) and one on cognitive psychology (Chapter 31), as well as a range of scientific perspectives incorporated in other chapters. It is worth reflecting on the institutionalised structures of knowledge, reward and research finance in this area: many of the scientists that we reached out to were unwilling to commit to publishing in a cross-disciplinary forum and to a publishing format – an edited collection – which is singular to the humanities and social sciences. In the hard sciences, the outputs for hard-won research hours are standard science journal articles (usually by large teams of co-researchers). Often research into health interventions (which is a common focus for yoga and meditation studies in these disciplines) also need to demonstrate the potential to generate or at least to save money in the context of the healthcare market. The academic environment is therefore increasingly driven by constrained research outputs and specific research funding opportunities. An important challenge for social science and humanities researchers going forward is to impress upon both biomedical researchers and the general public the importance of understanding health interventions in context – that their healing and meaning-giving potential cannot be reduced to, or fully understood by, biomedical measurements. Conversely, it can also be helpful for humanities and ‘soft’ science scholars to have a better understanding of how the body is likely to react to certain psycho-physical techniques and what this might mean for the social construction of traditions and ontological understandings of reality. Defining meditation and yoga: the challenges Across this collection, scholars have grappled with central questions, themes and tensions inherent in studying these subjects in the contemporary world and from within the often Euroand America-centric academic traditions. First and foremost among our projects has been the exploration and problematising of the very definitions of terms such as ‘yoga’, ‘meditation’, ‘contemplation’, and spiritual ‘discipline’ across chronology, region and religious categories. We have long since moved beyond the twentieth-century view of yoga and meditation as ‘timeless’ or ‘universal’ traditions of the ‘Mystic East’ (see King 1999). Rather, when we probe more deeply, we discover the many nuances of these somewhat general terms and that there are multiple definitions and accounts of yoga and meditation that are particular to specific contexts. When a scholar sets out to formally define ‘yoga’ and/or ‘meditation’ there are many challenges to confront, not least at the basic level of language. For example, scholars encounter translation difficulties, such as which words may reasonably be translated as ‘meditation’ from different languages. While dhyāna in Sanskrit, jìngzuò (静坐) in Japanese, and shouyi (守一) in Chinese Daoist discourse are often translated into English with the word ‘meditation’, more technically they denote ‘absorption’ (dhyāna), ‘quiet sitting’ (jìngzuò), and ‘guarding the one’ (shouyi). It is equally possible to assert that these varied practices are entirely disparate and disconnected and should not be grouped under the umbrella term of ‘meditation.’ The scholar faces similarly challenging philological choices: e.g. did yogācāra mean ‘discipline of yoga’ for classical South Asian Buddhists or something generic such as ‘spiritual conduct’? What happens to an experiential categorisation of samādhi as a singular type of ‘meditative concentration’ when some Mahāyāna Buddhist texts note that types of samādhis run, numerically, into the millions? (See Deleanu, Chapter 7.) Furthermore, one has to negotiate semantic change and slippage across time and language: be it within a Sanskrit text or as a borrowed word, what does yoga denote in different cultures, languages and eras? Finally, contemporary definitions often eclipse historical definitions and can lead to anachronistic, misinformed or simply skewed understandings of the past discussions of yoga as recorded in textual sources. On the other hand, 5 6 Karen O’Brien-Kop and Suzanne Newcombe contemporary definitions of yoga and identities within particular meditative traditions can be weighed down by the ideological anchor of historical ‘authenticity’ with no room for organic change and development in meaning or understanding. Then there are the challenges of defining a practice of ‘yoga’ or ‘meditation’. Is yoga a means to an end (a set of techniques) or the goal itself (the end state of liberation)? Where does ritual end and meditation begin? (Is lighting a candle a ritual act or a meditative act, or both?) How do we, as scholars, reconstruct past or present practices of yoga and meditation, taking into account the dilemmas of the etic/emic perspectives and the often thorny topic of insider and outsider identities and statuses? Furthermore, what are our presumptions about practice in relation to yoga and meditation? If yoga is understood as primarily characterised by ‘visible’ practices such as posture and breathing technique, then is meditation understood as an inner or ‘invisible’ set of techniques? Do the categories of ‘meditation’ and ‘yoga’ reproduce a Cartesian dualism of ‘mind’ and ‘body’ that is reductive and Eurocentric? Again, our survey of traditions and regions in this volume demonstrates that meditation practice may be just as bodily and demonstrative as any conception of yoga – e.g. Jain walking meditation with fixed gaze (see Pragya, Chapter 13). Indeed, the characterisation of meditation as an ‘inner’ and silent experience is, in part, a product of the European colonial privileging of Theravāda Buddhist meditation as the meditation technique par excellence (see Husgafvel, Chapter 3). A further challenge awaits the scholar in dealing with the field of yoga or meditation studies itself. Since the term ‘yoga’ has been specifically limited in its application to South Asia and its derived contexts and transmissions, the field of yoga studies is, in many ways, more clearly demarcated.The term ‘meditation’, however, has a semantic provenance and currency far beyond South Asia, is more culturally neutral, and has been used to define spiritual practices in a range of religions, regions and time periods. As a consequence, the academic field of meditation studies is more difficult to delimit than yoga studies, because it is more disparate culturally. In the case of meditation, all roads do not lead back to South Asia, as they do for yoga. Distinct traditions of contemplation can be traced to ancient Greek concepts of self-care and meditation/contemplation, to the Chinese practices glossed as ‘sitting’, or to a range of other cultural contexts. In this volume, we have dealt with a further valence in the definition of yoga in particular. One of the questions that arose was the way in which authors working on different time periods were using the same technical terms. For example, take the case of haṭhayoga. This term conveys a different meaning from its early Buddhist mention in South Asian yogācāra literature in the c. third century CE (as a ‘forceful process’ although its method is not explained) (Mallinson 2020: 5), to a medieval context in the fifteenth-century Haṭhapradīpikā (indicating the yoga of force, but now encompassing a specific set of techniques), to its popular twenty-first-century anglophone branding as ‘gentle stretching in a traditional Indian style.’3 As editors, we therefore discussed how to differentiate the premodern from the modern referents using a stylistic device.4 In order to distinguish a modern haṭhayoga (indicating post-Vivekānanda, anglophone, asana-focused yoga) from its historical precedents, we opted for the anglicised Hatha Yoga (or more generically hatha yoga). Hatha Yoga is how the term is primarily written in early twentieth-century primary sources in English. In contrast to this borrowed ‘Hatha Yoga’ in English, we reserve italics and diacritics for the Sanskrit haṭhayoga as discussed in premodern South Asian sources, but also for contemporary traditional practices in India that use the term haṭha.This indicates a theoretical stance on the need to engage in a constant critical reflection on the meaning of the terms that we employ as scholars, rather than sliding into a comfort zone about what ‘yoga’ means.This editorial choice also asks the reader to maintain a critical enquiry into the questions of continuity and rupture in traditions of yoga, and it strongly challenges perennialist assumptions of a single yoga that is true for all times, places and people. 6 7 Reframing yoga and meditation studies We wish to avoid, however, an elision of the entanglements between historical and modern practices of meditation and yoga with this stylistic distinction; it is certainly the case that many ‘traditional’ forms of yoga and meditation (i.e. historically continuous practices) continue to exist today. Indeed further discussion and deconstruction of the term haṭha shows it as unstable and polyvalent even before the Haṭhapradīpikā (see Singleton, Chapter 9). Finally, the stylistic intervention that we have applied in this volume to haṭhayoga and Hatha Yoga can equally be applied to other relevant terms that have potent cross-linguistic currency and a ‘brand value’ outside of their original historical contexts, such as vipassanā and Vipassana, aṣṭāṅga yoga and Ashtanga Yoga, or āsana and asana. This nuanced approach points to the unique historical context of South Asian yoga and meditation, and it also highlights singular developments and innovations in transnational yoga and meditation. Contributors to this volume have also sought to clarify the extent to which concepts and practices of ‘meditation’ and ‘yoga’ can be regarded as distinct or overlapping in a particular tradition, context or time period. In some traditions, yoga and meditation have been used synonymously, while in others they are separate. For example, in early South Asia, Patañjali defines yoga as concentration (samādhi) (Pātañjalayogaśāstra 1.1),5 indicating that the primary understanding of yoga in this period was as meditative practice. In a contemporary context, Ville Husgafvel (Chapter 3) discusses the relationship between meditation and yoga from a meditation studies point of view, pointing to the many entanglements, such as the inclusion of yoga postures in various Mindfulness-Based Practices (MBPs). In other contexts, however, we see that a stricter demarcation has been maintained between the two disciplines. In Japan, the longstanding historical importance of meditation traditions – inclusive of Daoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, Shinto and more modern interpretations – far outweighs the cultural contact with posturalbased yoga in the later twentieth century. Furthermore, in many contexts, practices of yoga and meditation intersect with a broader category of ‘asceticism’, from which it can be difficult to differentiate discrete concepts of yoga and/or meditation. Another key question has been the ways in which specific practices of ‘yoga’ or ‘meditation’ can lead to unique experiences, effects and understandings. For example, a particular practice of ‘meditation’ or ‘yoga’ in one context can look very different to other practices that carry the same label – e.g. kuṇḍalinī yoga in medieval Kashmir as explored by Olga Serbaeva Saraogi in Chapter 8, or in contemporary Assam and present-day USA as explored by Sravana BorkatakyVarma in Chapter 25. Equally, we encounter practices, habits and codes in historical traditions that may not be explicitly called yoga or meditation but which appear to entail similar traits and outcomes – e.g. the practices of early Buddhism in South Asia (Deleanu, Chapter 7) or the Sufi breathing techniques of medieval South Asia (D’Silva, Chapter 15). In grouping together various endeavours under an umbrella term such as ‘meditation’ for the purposes of scholarly analysis, one has to ask whether, in today’s world and at the level of experience, there are any connections between the contemporary mindfulness of Kabat-Zinn and mantra recitation (mantar-jap) in Sikhism, or between yogic jumping techniques (Beps) in Tibetan Buddhism and ‘Christian yoga’ in the USA, or between Daoist qi and yogic prāṇa. The artificiality of the analytical categories of ‘yoga’ and ‘meditation’ can unintentionally revive and reify the perennialist view all over again. However, this is emphatically not the intention of this volume. Rather than proposing an answer to the above question, the juxtaposition of perspectives here hopes to create more, better and new questions – and to begin to reframe the discussion. Finally, there is the issue of what is to be regarded as ‘yoga’ and/or ‘meditation’: if a practitioner or community defines a particular practice or phenomenon as ‘yoga’ or ‘meditation’, even though it appears to be at radical odds with established and traditional forms – witness recent social media discussions about ‘goat yoga’ or ‘beer yoga’, for example – should it 7 8 Karen O’Brien-Kop and Suzanne Newcombe be dismissed evaluatively as ‘non-authentic’? This is a discussion that Andrea Jain takes up in Chapter 5. On the whole, this research handbook seeks to shift the contemporary framing of yoga beyond the limited binary debates of ‘tradition’ and ‘authenticity’ versus ‘non-tradition’ and ‘non-authenticity.’ Yes, tracing how orthogenetic developments have occurred within and without South Asia is still important (and well covered in section two of this volume), but there are also broader global questions to be asked: In what ways and contexts might yoga and meditation practices cause harm? Is there any yoga on the planet that is not today embroiled in neoliberal capitalism? In what ways are yoga and meditation being weaponised at an international scale as tools of political, religious, racial, economic and cultural hegemony? Shifting discussions and emerging areas of research As editors we are committed to the project of ‘decolonising yoga’ and have endeavoured to encompass a diversity of views that have the potential to decentre traditional or dominant narratives, be they epistemic, cultural or regional. For example, this volume includes chapters that, for the first time in English, explore developments of yoga and meditation traditions in Korea and in Latin America (see Park and Park, Chapter 22; Muñoz, Chapter 23) – as well as a chapter that introduces new research from Japan (see Kurita, Chapter 21). Additionally, through this collection of studies we are attempting to bring areas of established (but previously niche) research to wider audiences of yoga and meditation studies, such as the significance of yoga and meditation traditions in Insular Southeast Asia (see Acri, Chapter 19). We were able to include theological perspectives in the chapters on yoga and meditation in Jain and Sikh traditions (see Pragya, Chapter 13; Bhogal, Chapter 16). And we have asked all of our contributors to consider insider and outsider implications in their own research, including the complex category of the scholarpractitioner. Furthermore, we also explored how different agendas, questions and interest groups drive current research in our various disciplinary areas of study – a topic thoroughly discussed at the authors’ workshop in March 2019. We have therefore aimed to engage in reflexive scholarship on the academic approaches and identities that inform the field. However, shifting the understandings created and maintained by academic power structures and methods of studying is a slow process, and proposing viable alternatives is not necessarily easy or straightforward. The first step toward creating new assumptions for discussion is to draw attention to what is missing and to those perspectives that have yet to be represented at the table. We regret the limited extent to which we were able to include scholars of yoga and meditation trained at and holding positions at educational institutions in South Asia. Additionally, we were not able to include a chapter that could explore the recent exponential growth of yoga in China or a detailed analysis of the exchange of yogic and meditative practices between China and its neighbours in Asia from the Chinese perspective. Understandings about yoga and meditation in Eastern European and former communist cultures is also a topic that needs more sustained attention in global studies of these techniques and practices. Furthermore, the regional histories and contemporary contexts of yoga and meditation in Africa and the Middle East are vital areas for future, sustained research. Unfortunately, one volume cannot cover everything – but it can highlight and spearhead some important emerging areas for required focus. One significant area of emerging research is the acknowledgement and analysis of how abuses of power and sexuality have been embedded in many contemporary (and historical) yoga and meditation movements. There are wide-ranging studies of abusive behaviour in many of the groups associated with practices that gained popularity after World War II. Such studies have been undertaken in the context of sociology of religion – particularly in research 8 9 Reframing yoga and meditation studies on ‘new religious movements’ (NRMs) – and in psychological studies on ‘cultic abuse’ and (more recently) ‘coercive control.’6 But until the last decade, there was little public discussion of institutionalised abuse, particularly institutionalised sexual abuse. This culture change is facilitating a new framing of research into this important area. Central to future enquiry will be theorisations of race, gender, culture and power and the ways in which intersections of these factors have produced, facilitated and covered up abusive behaviour. This handbook is being produced at the start of a five-year Luce Foundation funded project into ‘Sexual Abuse and Religious Movements’ which is headed by Amanda Lucia at the University of CaliforniaRiverside – and its emerging research agenda promises to include in its publications and output a broad range of groups that have yoga and meditation as central practices. Although several of the contributions in this volume mention the issue of abuse in groups and movements (e.g. Jain, Chapter 5; Wong, Chapter 32), we regret that we were not able to include a substantive chapter on this issue as a stand-alone subject. Early pioneering work on structural inequalities within both academic and practitioner communities interested in yoga and meditation has been undertaken by scholars working on the intersections of gender and capitalism and research groups such as Race and Yoga7 (see for example: Jain 2015, 2020; Black 2016; Lucia 2018; Godrej 2017; Gandhi forthcoming). In recent years, there have been key reflections on race, whiteness and Buddhism in the west (e.g. Yancy and McRae 2019; Gleig 2019). Yet critical race theory is still to be integrated and applied within mainstream research in yoga studies. The bulk of the work on race and yoga to date has been produced by women of colour working in the USA, and the burden of drawing attention to social and structural inequities has not yet been shouldered (or discussed reflexively) by significant numbers of white scholars. In line with developments in critical race theory and decolonial approaches, analysis of race in yoga and meditation communities will focus more on whiteness and its cultural manifestations globally. There may also be further scrutiny to ensure that broader demographic and institutional power structures are not automatically replicated in communities of academic scholar-practitioners. A pernicious consequence of colonialism, cultural appropriation and religious exoticism is evident in the fact that while aspects of South Asian culture are pick’n’mixed – from the fashion industry to commercialised yoga – citizens of South Asian heritage are still stereotyped and vilified as terrorists in the global north (see e.g. Bald 2015). Even as yoga reaches the farthest corners of small-town US culture, there are still fundamental misunderstandings of South Asian religion and culture so that Sikhs, for example, are attacked as ‘Muslim terrorists’ because of their turbans.8 In many cases, a romanticised and highly selective skimming-off of South Asian cultures has been carried out by white yoga practitioners, to the detriment of engaging with these cultures as integral, living traditions. Further disciplinary developments in yoga studies will take place in South Asian textual studies related to yoga and meditation, where there has been a firm emphasis on translating Sanskrit texts for the past 200 years. However, there is growing recognition of the many texts yet to be translated and studied in other languages such as Hindi, Urdu and Bengali, and even more so the languages of southern India, such as Tamil, Malayālam and Telugu. Texts and archives in these languages, both premodern and modern, will offer up new information on the history and development of yoga and meditation in South Asia – and steer attention beyond the Yogasūtra and Bhagavadgītā towards non-elite sources such as songs, poems, tracts, manuals, letters, and popular and literary works. Considerable ground has been gained in acknowledging the diversity of South Asian religious traditions in the development of yoga – including Buddhism, Jainism and Islam – but further work remains to be done in order to develop this body of knowledge. Ongoing rapid developments in digital humanities will continue to alleviate the 9 10 Notes painstaking burden of creating critical editions of original texts and analysing large corpuses, and such innovations will lead to new insights into old texts at a faster rate. There is an increasing number of projects that are in various ways connected to the aims of social justice, be it the debates around ‘engaged’ or ‘disengaged’ Buddhism or those around ‘on the mat/off the mat’ activism in yoga. Also growing in number are projects seeking to instigate social change for underprivileged groups – from yoga and mindfulness in prisons, to yoga and meditation for refugees. These developments in political and social activism will also be instantiated in already complex scholar-practitioner identities, leading to new forms of embodied academic critiques, political dissent and socially-engaged knowledge modalities. Finally, an emergent area of interest, on which there is yet to be substantial published research, is the relationship between yoga and technology. The impacts of robot yoga teachers, robot monks chanting in Buddhist temples, digital gurus, meditation headsets and consciousness implants are among the many topics currently under investigation (see Singleton forthcoming). Concluding remarks Interdisciplinary research is vital to the development of yoga and meditation studies. This kind of knowledge exchange is essential to strengthen the field and to make sense of complex and fast-moving global developments. How can lab-based scientists measure the benefits (and potential detriments) of a meditation technique if they do not understand the social contexts in which these practices were developed historically and are presently taught? How can one decode the meaning of historical texts on haṭhayoga postures without the referent of embodied interpretation? We hope that the sheer range of contributions in this volume will help to continue the widening of both academic and practitioner assumptions about the diversity and complexity of traditions of yoga and meditation. Moreover, it is our aim that this collaborative reframing will eventually transform lived understandings beyond the scholars and practitioners who are specifically interested in the techniques of yoga and meditation. The intention of this volume is to generate more nuanced insights into the depth of global traditions of meditation and yoga in order to contribute to a wider reframing of shared understandings of the categories of religion, science, spirituality, politics and culture. Notes 1 The workshop ‘Disciplines and Dialogue: The Future of Yoga and Meditation Studies’ was attended by more than forty international scholars who shared their research; this two-day workshop was generously funded by the Strategic Research Investment Fund at the Open University’s Faculty of Arts and Social Science and supported in kind by the Centre of Yoga Studies at SOAS University of London. 2 Interdisciplinarity involves integrating or synthesizing two or more disciplines in a single study to create a new approach; cross-disciplinarity entails using one discipline to examine another; multi-disciplinarity employs a range of disciplinary approaches in one study without attempting to synthesize them. For further discussion, especially on interdisciplinarity, see Graff 2015: 1–19. 3 As one yoga website states: ‘Today, the term hatha is used in such a broad way that it is difficult to know what a particular hatha class will be like. In most cases, however, it will be relatively gentle, slow and great for beginners or students who prefer a more relaxed style where they hold poses longer.’ www. doyogawithme.com/types-of-yoga. Accessed 11 March 2020. 4 On this subject, we wish to express our gratitude to Mark Singleton for his valuable insights and dialogue with us on the subject. 5 The commentary (bhāṣya) to sūtra 1.1 states, yogaḥ samādhiḥ, ‘yoga is concentration’. It also states, sa saṃprajñāto yoga ity ākhyāyate, ‘That cognitive form [of concentration; of samādhi] is called yoga.’ (Maas 2006: 2–3; trans O’Brien-Kop). 10 11 Notes 6 The following references may help to further explore this topic: Caldwell 2001; Crovetto 2008 and 2011; Barker 1987 and 2009; Downing 2001; Jacobs 2007; Lewis 2011; Palmer 2018 and 1994; Palmer and Hardman 1999; Rochford 1998, 2007 and 2011; Masis 2007; Urban 2003 and 2011; van Eck Duymaer van Twist 2014 and 2015;Voix 2008. 7 https://escholarship.org/uc/crg_raceandyoga. Accessed 24 July 2020. 8 See, for example, this news story: https://edition.cnn.com/2016/09/15/us/sikh-hate-crime-victims/ index.html. Accessed 11 March 2020. 1 The RSS is a large Indian volunteer organisation associated with the promotion of Hindutva, or ‘Hinduness’, and it is often seen as aligned with the political goals of Hindu fundamentalism. 2 This brief sketch is of course incomplete and does not address key movements, such as the substantial migration of Indians to Gulf states. A welcome direction for future scholarship would investigate further the cultural politics of yoga in the Middle East. 1 Standardised programmes include, for example, mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), mindfulness-based mind-fitness training (MMFT), mindfulness-based eating awareness training (MB-EAT), mindfulness-based relapse prevention (MBRP), mindfulness-based childbirth and parenting (MBCP), and mindfulness-based elder care (MBEC). 2 In academia, these historical and contemporary premises question the conceptualisation of ‘yoga studies’ and ‘meditation studies’ as two clearly distinct fields of research, and also the earlier field-specific approaches of studying yoga in ‘Hindu’ (Vedic-Brahmanic) studies and meditation in Buddhist (also Jain, Daoist, etc.) studies.Thus, the name ‘yoga and meditation studies’ can be seen not so much as indicating a combination of two different research fields but as merely capturing different aspects of one shared field. 3 For a critique of ‘context-independent’ approaches in the study of meditation within the cognitive sciences, see Thompson 2017. 4 Candy Gunther Brown is an established scholar in religious studies, but her views on the religiosity of yoga and mindfulness appear to be influenced by her ideological and political positioning (see also Newcombe 2018). Brown has repeatedly worked as the main academic expert on behalf of the National Center for Law & Policy (NCLP), a non-profit legal group ‘closely associated with ideological positions of contemporary neo-conservative politics and conservative Christian faith’ (Newcombe 2018; NCLP 2018) in US court cases and legal concerns against the use of yoga and mindfulness practices in public schools. In the Sedlock v. Baird case on the use of yoga in the Encinitas School District, the court explicitly stated that ‘Dr. Brown is not objective and not creditable and Dr. Brown is biased’ (Mayer 2013a). Moreover, the judge considered Dr. Brown almost ‘to be on a mission against Ashtanga yoga’ (Mayer 2013b). For Brown’s responses and more discussion, see Deslippe 2017 and Brown 2013. 5 On the ‘invention of world religions’ see Masuzawa 2005. 1 This chapter was partially financially supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 647963 (Haṭha Yoga Project). 2 We would like to thank Suzanne Newcombe, Ann Gleig, Ville Husgafvel and the Routledge anonymous reviewer for their reflections on this chapter. 3 Several international yoga conferences have taken place in the recent past (a few notable examples are: ‘Yoga in Transformation, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on a Global Phenomenon’, University of Vienna, 19–21 September 2013; ‘Yoga Darśana, Yoga Sādhana: Traditions, Transmissions, Transformations’, Jagiellonian University, Krakow 2016; and ‘Yoga, Movement, and Space’, University of Kyoto, 2–3 November 2018). Between 2015-2020 there were two five-year ERC-funded research projects on yoga: the Entangled Histories of Yoga, Ayurveda and Alchemy in South Asia (www.ayuryog. org/) and the Haṭha Yoga Project (http://hyp.soas.ac.uk/). There is also a ‘Yoga in Theory and Practice Unit’ at the American Academy of Religion which has at least one large panel each year at the AAR Annual Meeting. In recent years, other international academic conferences (notably of the European Conference on South Asian Studies, (ECSAS) the European Association for the Study of Religions (EASR) and the Association of Social Anthropologists (ASA)) have often included a panel on yoga as part of their programme. 4 See, for example, McCutcheon (1999); Spickard, Landres and McGuire (2002); Knott (2005); Chryssides and Gregg (2019). 5 In fact, as we write this chapter in late 2018, members of the Yggdrasill German-speaking listserv for scholars of religion have been vigorously revisiting the question of the role of scholars in the production of knowledge, and what our relationship to reality and facts might be. The following article by Kocku von Stuckrad arose from that discussion: www.counterpointknowledge.org/accountability-orobjectivity-being-a-scholar-in-an-age-of-crisis/ Accessed 30 November 2018. 11 12 Notes 6 See for instance, Knott 2005; the ‘Participatory Turn’ as proposed by Ferrer and Sherman 2008, or The Insider/Outsider Debate, New Perspectives in the Study of Religion edited by George Chryssides and Stephen E. Gregg (2019), who suggest that, ‘it has become clear that binary notions of religious belonging, based upon narrow views of religion as a monolithic category of participation, are no longer tenable within the Study of Religion […] and suggest a new relational continuum approach to the inside/outside issue in the Study of Religion which is reflective of contemporary developments in methodology, focusing in particular on issues of lived religion’, www.equinoxpub.com/home/viewchapter/?id=27422. Accessed 30 November 2018. 7 Postcolonial studies has grown to a large field of study. Since Said’s critique and coinage of the term ‘Orientalism’ (1978), other scholars have critically engaged with the relationship between India and the West such as Halbfass (1990), Inden (1990), King (1999), Chakrabarty (2000) to name just a few. For an overview of the approach known as ‘engaged anthropology’ see Low and Merry (2010). 8 For example, an unpublished study by Michael Aktor and Suzanne Newcombe, based on a nonrepresentative survey of scholars of the religious traditions of Asia, suggests that at least half of professional scholars of Hinduism and Buddhism have ‘some kind of personal practice related to the religion they professionally study’ (Aktor and Newcombe, unpublished). 9 By ‘traditional yoga’ we mean yoga as practised in ascetic, monastic and householder settings in South Asia, handed down through a religious lineage and relatively free from the innovations of globalised modern yoga. The term is problematic in that it suggests a kind of hermetic purity that rarely exists in living religious traditions, and a simple binary with ‘non-traditional’ or ‘modern’ yoga. We employ the term here simply to highlight the distinct case of the scholar-practitioner in the modern university. 10 We asked the following four questions: (1) Do you practise yoga/meditation regularly and/or have you practised yoga/meditation regularly in the past? What kind(s)? (2) Have you ever taught practical yoga/ meditation? (3) Have you ever taught about yoga/meditation in non-academic settings (e.g. centres, studios, teacher trainings etc.)? If so, what is the difference in your experience of teaching in academic and non-academic settings? (4) Do you experience any tension between your academic life and your life as a practitioner of yoga/meditation and do you consciously keep these separate in any way? 11 One of the two respondents who does not currently practise but has tried out some yoga classes feels ‘anxiety about his lack of practical experience’ and would like to ‘delve more deeply into the practice in the future’. 12 In Sanskrit universities and Sanskrit departments all across India, yoga continues to be taught as a śāstra in which, typically, students study the Pātañjalayogaśāstra along with its commentaries.Yoga is thus part of the curriculum of what would be the equivalent of higher education in ‘philosophy’. A list of sixteen Sanskrit universities in India compiled on Wikipedia show that in all of these universities yoga is taught as a subject within the degree of ‘Acharya’ or ‘Shastri’ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_ universities_in_India. Accessed on 29 November 2018. As an illustration of this, the Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati has its own ‘Department of Sankhya Yoga’ within the Faculty of Darshanas, http://rsvidyapeetha.ac.in/fd.htm. Accessed on 29 November 2018. 13 An acronym of ‘Ayurveda,Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy’. 14 For example, until fairly recently, yoga was studied at Benares Hindu University as a Sanskrit subject within the philosophy programme. Since 2006, one can also study ‘Preventive & Social Medicine and Yoga’ within the independently established Department of Swasthavritta and Yoga’. www.bhu.ac.in/ ims/swasthayoga/dep_index.html. Accessed on 22 November 2018. 15 Though the Supreme Court of India ruled against making yoga compulsory in public schools, the Human Resource Development Ministry declared that ‘Yoga is an integral part of the curriculum of “Health and Physical Education”, which is a compulsory subject for Classes 1 to 10. To that extent, yoga has not been neglected’. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/59967483. cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst. Accessed on 22 November 2018. 16 The Royal Asiatic Society was founded by Colebrooke in 1824. Its academic journal is still being published, with occasional articles on yoga. Currently, this journal has at least one eminent yoga scholar on their editorial board (Carl Ernst). Similarly, other academic journals and institutions that publish research on yoga have an undeniable colonial history, e.g. Société Asiatique, Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, Brill. 17 Max Müller too, towards the end of his life, published his notes on the ‘Six Systems of Indian Philosophy’ in which he deals with ‘Yoga and Sâmkhya’ in Chapter Seven. Not surprisingly, he views yoga as an intellectual exercise mostly devoid of physical exercise. Seated āsanas are discussed by him as aids in his 12 13 Notes 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 subchapter, ‘Yogâṅgas, Helps to Yoga’ (Müller 1899: 402–473). On Müller’s disregard for practical yoga see Singleton 2010: 43. On the lack of interest for yoga within indology and on the history of indological research on the Pātañjalayogaśāstra see Maas 2013. ‘In the Humboldtian ideal the university existed solely to serve truth, science and learning. Reformers looked with suspicion on the “upper” faculties (law, medicine and theology), which ultimately served not Wissenschaft but the utilitarian needs of society and state for professional practitioners. Their suspicion fell especially heavily on the faculty of theology.They insisted that if the faculty was to continue to exist at all as a part of the university, it must abandon its claim to revelatory knowledge transcending science, must treat theology entirely as a branch of Wissenschaft, and must abandon or radically de-emphasise the educational task of preparing clergymen for the pulpit and pastoral duties’ (Turner 2007: 371). The increased prevalence of private funding in British, European and American universities raises sensitive questions about academic neutrality, especially when funders are wedded to a particular ideology or vision of history, and/or to a particular outcome of the research they pay for. The erosion of public funding in universities increasingly puts pressure on scholars to find money from private sources and, arguably, to adapt their research to the goals of the funder. The privatised university also recreates students as consumers, further impacting teaching and research directions. See Collini 2018. Aktor and Newcombe found in their unpublished survey based on research conducted online in academic discussion groups on the religions of south asia and Buddhism (conducted 2007-8) that ‘although many practitioner-scholars have no wish to hide their religious practices and identification, many members in both groups [Buddhist and Hindu ‘scholar-practitioners’] voiced anxiety about being subject to discriminatory employment practices and more general negative assessments by colleagues if they identified with their religion of study publicly’. The theoretical work of Donald Weibe (1981)and Russell McCutcheon (1999) are in some respects representative of this position. See Douglas 2012. See Morgan 2012; Barbezat and Bush (eds.) 2014; Simmer-Brown and Grace (eds) 2011; Komjathy 2016. https://brown.edu/academics/contemplative-studies/about. Accessed 31 December 2019. http://csc.virginia.edu/content/mission. Accessed 31 December 2019. https://csc.virginia.edu/activity/spring-2020-yoga. Accessed 14 February 2020. https://academics.lmu.edu/extension/crs/yoga/. Accessed 31 December 2019. As the director of the programme, Christopher Key Chapple, writes: ‘Since the 1960s, Loyola University (the name changed to Loyola Marymount University on the occasion of merger with Marymount College in 1974) has been deeply engaged in interfaith dialogue and in various modalities of spiritual formation. Our Yoga Studies offerings build on this long-standing tradition’, https://bellarmine.lmu. edu/yoga/people/meetthedirector/. Accessed 31 December 2019. http://yogainhighereducation.blogspot.com/2012/08/north-american-educators-and-use-of.html. Accessed 31 December 2019. https://unive.it/pag/4994/. Accessed 14 February 2020. https://soas.ac.uk/religions-and-philosophies/programmes/ma-traditions-of-yoga-and-meditation/. Accessed 31 December 2020. A roundtable discussion of the convenors of the three extant yoga Master Programmes (Los Angeles, Venice, London) at an academic conference in Krakow in 2016, chaired by one of the authors of this paper (Singleton), made these differences in approach quite apparent, (https://academia.edu/ 16072001/yoga_dar%C5%9Bana_yoga_s%C4%81dhana_traditions_transmissions_transformations_-_ conference_announcement_and_CFP). Accessed 14 February 2020. Fifteen of the respondents to our survey reported having taught or planning to teach at yoga teacher trainings or similar workshops in non-academic settings such as yoga studios or retreats. However, while many teach about yoga (i.e. history and philosophy), only about half of them actually teach meditation and/or postural yoga in both academic and non-academic settings. We personally know many scholars who fit this category. All of them are European. American scholars of Siddha Yoga such as Douglas Brooks, Paul Muller-Ortega, William Mahony, Carlos Pomeda, and Sally Kempton each provide interesting (and non-uniform) examples of this phenomenon. https://hafsite.org/takeyogaback. Accessed 5 January 2019. For a treatment of both the case in Encinitas school case and the Hindu American Foundation campaign ‘Take Yoga Back’, see Jain 2014; Powell 2014. 13 14 Notes 39 For example, the Yoga Journal published the following article in February 2018, https://yogajournal. com/lifestyle/timesup-metoo-ending-sexual-abuse-in-the-yoga-community. Accessed 10 January 2019; Remski 2019. 40 For example, in North America the Yoga Alliance, following severe critique over the years regarding their yoga teaching standards, decided in late 2017 to launch the ‘Standard Review Project’, https:// yastandards.com/. Accessed 10 January 2019. 41 For example in the UK the Keep Yoga Free movement, http://keepyogafree.co.uk/. Accessed 10 January 2019. 42 Some examples of ‘public yoga intellectuals’ are Matthew Remski, Carol Horton and Theodora Wildcroft. 43 For example, ‘Sri Louise’ a disciple of Swami Dayananda Sarasvati who critiques the yoga culture in North America, especially with regards to appropriation, both in her blog and on other social media platforms. An exemplary article published in Indiafacts.org is entitled: ‘Denying Yoga Its Roots – Classic Case of Hinduphobia’, http://indiafacts.org/darth-yogabecky-hinduphobia-facebook-docudrama/. Accessed 10 January 2019. Unfortunately, such responses can quickly descend into mere aggressive trolling. 44 Several scholars have privately expressed to us their aversion to public debate of this kind (particularly online) by evoking what Alberto Brandolini, an Italian independent software development consultant, has termed ‘Bullshit Asymmetry Principle’, which states that the amount of time taken to refute bullshit is exponentially greater than the amount of time taken to produce it, http://ordrespontane.blogspot. com/2014/07/brandolinis-law.html. Accessed on 11 January 2019. 45 See http://yastandards.com/. Accessed on 11 January 2019. 46 Such was the case, for example, with the scholar (of yoga and Hinduism) Andrew Nicholson whose work was plagiarised by Rajiv Malhotra in his 2014 book Indra’s Net. Nicholson wrote and published this response to the incident in Scroll: https://scroll.in/article/742022/upset-about-rajiv-malhotrasplagiarism-even-more-upset-about-distortions-of-my-work. Accessed on 11 January 2019. Malhotra said in response, ‘This syndrome is a subject of my research – namely, the western Indologists plagiarizing from Indians and rewriting in new clever English to claim originality’. In retaliation, he then removed all references to Nicholson from his new edition of Indra’s Net, replacing them with ‘references to the original Indian sources’. As quoted in https://insidehighered.com/news/2016/04/ 12/scholars-who-study-hinduism-and-india-face-hostile-climate. Accessed on 11 January 2019. 47 See for instance Adluri and Bagchee’s critique of German indology in The Nay-Science: A History of German Indology (2014). For a critique of this work see Franco (2016 and 2018) and Hanneder 2018. See also the opinion piece ‘Claiming Yoga for India’ by scholar Andrea Jain (http://religiondispatches. org/claiming-yoga-for-india/. Accessed 11 January 19). 48 See, in particular, Rajiv Malhotra’s Academic Hinduphobia: A Critique of Wendy Doniger’s Erotic School of Indology (2016). For a discussion of the term Hinduphobia in academia see Long 2017. For a critique of Malhotra, see Nussbaum 2009, chapter 7. 49 For example, Malhotra and his allies term such Indian academics ‘becharis [‘poor losers’]’ and ‘sepoys [i.e. Indian recruits in the colonial army]’, arguing that their motivation is to ‘feel superior to ordinary Indians’, https://infinityfoundation.com/indic_colloq/papers/paper_malhotra2.pdf. Accessed on 14 December 2018. 50 The case of Patricia Sauthoff is an example of this. Dr. Sauthoff who taught a course entitled ‘History and Politics of Yoga’ at Nalanda Univerity, was asked by the university to unconditionally apologise for ‘her critical comments to the media’ after her contract was not renewed without justification. Since the incident in 2017 she has received insults and threats of all kinds on social media, https://thewire. in/education/nalanda-unversity-yoga-patricial-sauthoff-yoga. Accessed 2 December 2018. 1 This chapter draws heavily from my book-length study of neoliberal yoga and neoliberal spirituality at large, Peace Love Yoga: The Politics of Global Spirituality (2020). Many of the ideas here also appear in Jain (2014a). 2 Although my work on neoliberal yoga makes the case that the above points are true (Jain 2014a, 2020), this has not been the general consensus among scholars analysing the commercialisation and mass marketing of yoga or spirituality at large. Some studies bemoan the consumer branding, commodification and popularisation of yoga and other spiritual commodities, such as mindfulness, as the loss of an imagined purer, authentic religious practice. Such approaches fit yoga within a framework that pits corrupt commodifications of cultural products against so-called authentic ones. Most notably, Slavoj Žižek (2001) offers such a referendum on modern appropriations of Buddhism, and Jeremy 14 15 Notes 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Carrette and Richard King (2005) bemoan the co-optation of spirituality by market forces, arguing that spirituality, including the yoga industry, is a ‘vacuous cultural trope’ that can be mixed with anything (2005: 46) and represents the ‘takeover’ of religion. Rather than make authenticity claims or otherwise assess the relationship between neoliberal yoga and historical yoga traditions, the current chapter focuses on yoga’s relationship to the dominant modes of governance at play under neoliberal capitalism. Of course, my argument that neoliberal capitalism moulds cultures of self-care does accord with the consensus academic position that the present moment’s arrangement of culture and ideology shapes the ways people are capable of thinking, even when they seek to think beyond or against the dominant order, it also analyzes those very cultures as religious ones. Edward Said (1978) defines orientalism as ‘a system of representations framed by a whole set of forces that brought the Orient into Western learning,Western consciousness, and later,Western empire … a product of certain political forces and activities’ (202–203). In the colonial period, orientalist scholarship served to legitimate colonial rule by bifurcating the world into the Orient and the Occident. The Orient and the Occident were defined in terms of perceived essences, and thus each was perceived as a homogenous, static system. Because orientalist thinkers have defined the Orient vis-à-vis the Occident, the system of representation that Said calls orientalism reveals more about occidental subjectivity than about any reality underlying representations of the Orient. Although these representations do not serve direct colonial rule, the regime of knowledge they support perpetuates divisive attitudes toward colonized cultures. Several studies have addressed these tendencies of the larger ‘neoliberal feminist’ movement, including H. Eisenstein 2009; Z. Eisenstein 2013; Fraser 2013; Rottenberg 2014; Rottenberg 2018; Kantor 2013; Huffer 2013. For a recent discussion on the relationship between the Proto-Śiva seal and the iconic representations of the Buddha or Jina in arts, including the term lotus position (padmāsana), see White (2009: 48–59). Another reason is that interpretations of specific passages from Principal Upaniṣads are the topic of discussions in the Brahmasūtra. Even for those passages, we often need Śaṅkara’s commentary to know which passages from specific Upaniṣads are the subject of discussion because the Brahmasūtra itself consists only of terse sentences. Buddhists use the word bhāvanā instead of dhyāna. In its first chapter there is also the term dhyānayoga (1.3, 14) and abhidhyāna-yojana (1.10, 11). Dhyāna is also one of the aṅgas of yoga in many traditions. The meaning of tarka in this context cannot be precisely determined. The term usually means analytical thinking, or simply analysis. It can mean logic or logical thinking. There are not many texts that refer to tarka as one of the subsidiaries of yoga apart from this Upaniṣad. Cowell 1870: 129; van Buitenen 1962: 112 both read ṣaḍaṅgā ity ucyate; I consider this to be a typographical error in Cowell adopted uncritically by van Buitenen. See for example Coomaraswamy 1935: 39ff. for the terminology related to the Buddha’s throne. Siṃhāsana (the lion chair) is a symbol of royalty; a throne.The original association between the Buddha and a throne probably comes from the Buddha’s royal status and that of spiritual lord. The asterisk indicates that this is a hypothetical reconstruction, as the term itself is not used in the Gītā. The meaning of the word yoga in Pāli as ‘application, endeavour, undertaking, effort’ appears in Pāli dictionaries such as that by the Pali Text Society (1921–1925). Furthermore, the significance of meditation in Buddhism in its entirety and especially in its complex history is a topic that requires dedicated research. Also, the concept and the term yogācāra in relation to the Buddhist philosophical school of so-called Yogācāra-vijñānavāda is a complex matter. Rather than getting into these topics, we focus here only on the meaning of the word yoga prior to when the term yogācāra was used to refer to a Buddhist philosophical school. Literally ‘golden embryo’, referring to Vedic cosmogony already found in the Ṛgveda, later often a name of Brahmā. There is debate as to whether this commentary can be ascribed to Śaṅkara (discussed below). Note that many systems whose fundamental interest was not to describe how the world works adopted the Vaiśeṣika categories. Such were the Nyāya, Mīmāṃsā and some others. See Adriaensen, Bakker and Isaacson 1998 for the nature of the Skandapurāṇa. The first edition of this Skandapurāṇa has been published as Bhattarai (1988). The yogavidhi chapters are available in Bhatttarai’s edition. See Vijñānabhikṣu’s commentary on Pātañjalayogaśāstra 1.1. (cf. Maas 2006: xiii). The understanding of the term citiśakti here follows mainly that in the Vivaraṇa. Its explanation is coherent with the use of the term in the sūtra and the bhāṣya. 15 16 Notes 18 Some references to yogas or yogins pointing to the asatkāryavāda are known. Since Sāṃkhya philosophy is characterized as satkāryavāda (the pre-existent effect), those references prompted some speculations. The simple answer is that those references were directed to the system of Hiraṇyagarbha’s yoga. While the yoga might be systematic, we do not have to consider that to be a philosophical system. 1 My sincerest gratitude goes to Drs Karen O’Brien-Kop and Suzanne Newcombe for accepting this modest contribution as well as to the anonymous reviewer for his/her pertinent comments. 2 A more faithful rendering is ‘truths of/for the Noble One(s)’ (cf. Williams, Tribe and Wynne 2012: 30). The rendering ‘noble truths’ has, however, the advantage of much wider use. (Unless otherwise indicated, the original terms are provided in Sanskrit.) 3 For canonical passages, see AN I 235; SN I 53; etc. 4 Vin I 2; Catuṣpariṣatsūtra 104–108. 5 Saundarananda 127, Canto XVII, ver. 25. 6 Pramāṇavārttika 162, ch. II, ver. 271cd. Cf. Eltschinger 2009: 179–180. On Dharmakīrti’s dates, see Deleanu 2019: 24–39. 7 There is a plethora of introductions to Buddhist meditation in South Asia, but relatively few are based on meticulous historical and philological research. Amongst the most reliable introductions, I would mention Conze [1956] 1969 and Shaw and Hatkis 2009. 8 ‘Mainstream Buddhism’ is an umbrella term encompassing more than thirty schools (see Bareau 1955). Basically conservative in their interpretations of the earlier teachings, these schools began to form from around mid-third century BCE. (The period of roughly two centuries preceding this and going back to Gotama Buddha is referred to as ‘Early Buddhism’.) Though not based on an Indic term, ‘Mainstream Buddhism’ is preferable to the pejorative Hīnayāna, ‘Lesser Vehicle’, employed by the rival movement of Mahāyāna, ‘Great Vehicle’, known for its highly innovative, nonconformist interpretations and which appears on the scene in the first century BCE. The appellation used by the Mainstream Buddhists to refer to themselves is Śrāvakayāna ‘Disciples Vehicle’. 9 There is no single traditional appellation covering the entire range of Tantric Buddhism, the eclectic esoteric movement which begins to make its presence felt on the doctrinal scene from around the middle of the seventh century CE. Vajrayāna ‘Adamantine Vehicle’ is often used in modern literature as a generic designation for the movement. The word is attested in South Asian sources, too, but it is not the only one and not necessarily generic. Other terms used to refer to this tradition (or parts of it) include Mantranaya, Mantrayāna, Kālacakrayāna and Sahajayāna (cf. Dasgupta 1958: 52–53, 63–76). 10 The history of South Asian Buddhism is often shrouded in mystery. This makes all attempts to reconstruct a chronology, including the one adopted here, hypothetical as well as controversial. 11 ‘Meditation’ is not a monolithic term in other South Asian traditions or western cultures, for that matter. For an overview of this polysemy, see Bader 1990: 25–44. 12 Depending on how we construe it, ‘meditation’ might also include mental processes traditionally covered in Buddhism by cintā ‘reflection’. 13 Abhidharma refers to the scholastic texts, some given canonical status, which comment, interpret and systematise the scriptural teachings. They began to be compiled from around the third century BCE on, and flourish for the next few centuries, mainly in Mainstream Buddhism, most notably in Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda. 14 E.g. DN II 313. For the meaning and place of samādhi in the wider context of Indo-Tibetan spirituality, see Sarbacker 2005. 15 Vism p. 68 § 2. The same paragraph leaves, however, no doubt that samādhi has a wide semantic range covering many types and various aspects. 16 In Early and Mainstream Buddhism, dhyāna (Pali, jhāna) usually denotes one or the entire set of four absorptions.There are, however, passages in which the term may have been conceived more generically (e.g. Sn ver. 156–157; ver. 972;Vin I, 2). We also find the word in a compound like arūpajjhāna ‘immaterial absorption’ (e.g. Dhs 56.19;Vism 566.7; Sv I 219.24; 219.27). This refers to the four levels of the so-called immaterial attainments, which follow the four jhānas. 17 E.g. DN II 312–313. Smṛti (Pali, sati) means ‘memory’ as well as ‘mindfulness’. For the semantic range and doctrinal ramifications of the term, see Cox 1992. 18 ŚrBh 275–277. 19 Northern Buddhism is a modern term encompassing Mainstream Buddhist schools such as the Sarvāstivāda, Sautrāntika, etc. as well as the Mahāyāna tradition. They shared not only the same geographical distribution, i.e. the area North of the Deccan Plateau extending into large parts of modern Pakistan and Afghanistan, but also a canonical intertexuality and mutual influences. 16 17 Notes 20 The Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, for instance, first lists 58 samādhis (AṣṭaPp 940–942) only to speak later of millions of samādhis (AṣṭaPp 987). In the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka (424), the number of samādhis reaches hundreds of thousands of koṭis (unit equivalent to ten million). 21 T 25.187c15–18. 22 BoBh 207–208. In Tantric sources, sādhana ‘[spiritual] accomplishment’ often refers to/includes meditative techniques, but its semantic sphere is wider. In the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa, for example, sādhana comprises ‘ritual actions, mantra recitation, fire oblation, visualisation, and worship of enlightened beings’ (Wallis 2002: 28–29). See also Sarbacker 2005: 111–126. 23 Theravāda or the School of the Elders represents the oldest and most conservative Buddhist tradition. Its canon, transmitted in Pali, preserves teachings and practices going back to Early Buddhism, but the codification of the Theravāda doctrinal system owes much to later generations of exegetes and scholarmonks, among whom Buddhaghosa is the central figure. 24 The subjects are first listed at Vism 89, § 104, and then each is treated in detail. This paragraph gives mainly Pali forms. 25 ŚrBh 202ff.; 411ff. The five-fold scheme, with some variations in the subjects and the proclivity allotment, is also found in other South Asian sources, mainly associated with Yogācāra. It also enjoyed some popularity in Chinese Buddhism (see Ōminami 1977). 26 ŚrBh 198; 202ff. 27 This section gives mainly Pali forms. 28 It should be noted, however, that the satipaṭṭhāna may also be connected to the samatha practice and jhāna states (see Kuan 2008: 57–80; Gethin 2015: 15–17). 29 AN I 61. 30 MN I 138–139. The latter characteristic is also known as anattā ‘no-self ’ (or ‘non-self ’), a trademark of Buddhist philosophy. This primarily refers to the lack of an unchanging soul as well as, especially in Mahāyāna, the absence of an inherent essence underlying phenomena. Let us add that in its Abhidharmic sense, paññā/prajñā is also construed as ‘understanding, discernment’ (e.g. AKBh 54). 31 Paṭis I. 32 Paṭis I 194–195; Paṭis II p. 93, § 2; Paṭis II 236–242. 33 The description is a stock formula found throughout the canon as well as in later literature. For Pali sources, see DN I 73–75; DN II 313; MN I 21–22, etc. 34 Or ‘pure with regard to equanimity and mindfulness’ (see Deleanu 2006: 546, n. 207). 35 This, too, is a frequent pericope. See AN IV 410; MN III 27; SN III 237, etc. 36 The Pali canon contains two versions of the text: DN II 290–315 and MN I 55–63. For the traditional understanding of this meditation and its historical background, see especially Schmithausen 1976, Kuan 2008, and Gethin 2015. 37 This step has been the primary source for the modern vipassanā movement, an approach summed up by the Thai master Achaan Chah ([1985] 1997: 99) as ‘[w]hatever arises, just watch’. One must add, however, that the overall aim of the traditional vipassanā is not ‘bare awareness’. As aptly pointed out by Sharf 2013, ‘[t]raditional Buddhist practices are oriented more toward acquiring “correct view” and proper ethical discernment, rather than “no view” and a non-judgmental attitude.’ See also Sharf 2015. 38 MN I 56. 39 MN I 58. 40 MN I 59. 41 E.g. Yogācārabhūmi (T 30.625a18; id. 810b6), Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra (p. 92 § 9 = T 16.698b17–18), *Vijñaptimātratāsiddhiśāstra (T31.50b10), etc. 42 AN III 355. Traditional exegetes, however, gloss dhammayogā bhikkhū as dhammakathika ‘preachers’ (cf. Gombrich 1996: 130). 43 My analysis owes much to the seminal Schmithausen 1981. Other essential studies include Griffiths [1986] 1999,Vetter 1988, Bronkhorst 1993; Gombrich 1996. 44 See SN II 115–118; AN III 355; passages like AN IV 422, etc. The importance attached to the attainment of cessation also hints at this pattern. 45 The Satipaṭṭhānasutta concludes that the practice leads to liberating insight (aññā), i.e. arhatship, in this very life or, at least, in the state of non-returner (MN I 62–63). 46 MN I 138–139. 47 E.g. AN IV 422. 48 The phrase is found in numerous other texts (e.g. MN I 160, AN IV 451, etc.). On this pattern, see Schmithausen 1981: 214–219. 17 18 Notes 49 For this dating, see Deleanu 2006: 186–194 and 2019: 12–13. 50 Sarvāstivāda was one of the most influential scholastic traditions and monastic establishments in Northern Mainstream Buddhism. With its main centre(s) in Kashmir, the school thrived during the first centuries of the Common Era, gradually losing pre-eminence to the new scholastic tradition developed by Mahāyāna from the fifth-sixth centuries on.The name of the school comes from its main theory (vāda) maintaining that the essence of all (sarva) basic factors, i.e. dharmas, which constitute the physical and mental reality continue to exist (asti) throughout the past, present and future. 51 The Sautrāntikas or ‘those following the authority of the canonical texts (sūtra)’ seem to have represented a broad range of exegetes who favoured flexible interpretations to the strict Sarvāstivādin orthodoxy. Rather than a single group, the Sautrāntikas were more probably individual scholar-monks active within various Mainstream Buddhist communities, some even affiliated to the Sarvāstivāda. Their common point was a loose core of doctrinal interpretations and a methodology critical of (what was perceived as) Sarvāstivādin dogmatism. 52 Vasubandhu does not give this stage a particular name, but its practice is treated as a distinct phase. 53 AKBh ch.VI ver. 24c. See also AKBh ch. III ver. 44c; ch. IV ver. 124; ch.VII ver. 30; ch.VII ver. 34. 54 AKBh p. 334. 55 Strictly speaking, prayoga is used by Vasubandhu for the last sublevel, but the preceding phases can also be taken as part of the preparatory training. 56 AKBh ch.VI ver. 9–25. 57 AKBh ch.VI ver. 25–32. 58 AKBh ch.VI ver. 33–44. 59 AKBh ch.VI ver. 47cd. 60 AKBh ch.VI ver. 45–55. 61 This a corpus of roughly 40 texts whose compilation extends from the earliest strata of Mahāyāna around 100 BCE to late Tantric developments (c. 600–1200 CE) (see Conze 1978).Their central motif is the attainment of the perfection of wisdom (prajñāpāramitā) through a non-reifying insight into the emptiness of all phenomena. 62 See PañcaPp 208 (description identical to the Ekottarāgama, T 2.630b). 63 Vin III 92–3, DN III 219, SN IV 360, AN I 299; T 2.630b, etc. 64 PañcaPp 48. The same holds true for the contemplations of signlessness and desirelessness. 65 AṣṭaPp 60–61. The collocation na saṁvidyate can also mean ‘does not perceive [anything]’. 66 BoBh 49–50; 396. The method has canonical roots (AN V 324–326; T 2.235c-236b; T 2.430c-431a), but much of the description here is unique to BoBh. 67 BoBh 396. 68 AṣṭaPp 754. 69 Earliest Buddhist tradition may have given a higher place to these techniques. Their relegation to an inferior or optional place may be a secondary development (see Maithrimurthi 1999). 70 BhKr 187–190 and 229–234. 71 BhKr 189–190. The method is quite similar to the cultivation of friendliness and compassion in Mainstream Buddhism (e.g.Vism 244–262). 72 Lack of space prevents us from looking into other important developments such as friendliness and compassion meditation without [conceptualising the] object (anālamabana). E.g. BoBh 241; MSA 121 (Maithrimurthi 1999: 331). 73 Madhyamaka, founded by the famous Nāgārjuna (c. 150–250 CE), pushes the non-substantialism, i.e. emptiness doctrine (śūnyatāvāda), advocated in the Prajñāpāramitā literature to its ultimate conclusions developing a dialectical methodology of deconstructivism. It denies the possibility of postulating any real, substantial essences (svabhāva) of phenomena. Language/conceptualisation, even by making appeal to such doctrines as ‘emptiness’, is unable to give account of the nature of the ‘ultimate reality’ without reifying/mystifying it. 74 Whether Yogācāra is an idealistic philosophy remains a controversial topic. Lusthaus 2002, for instance, argues that the school is closer to a phenomenological approach. My own understanding follows in the footsteps of those scholars, not exactly few in number, who regard Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda as a form of idealism. For a recent and excellent discussion, see Kellner and Taber 2014. 75 Cittamātra is another name of the school. 76 For this model, see MahSūtr 90–97 and 23–24 (which I follow below). For the identification of each of the path names, see Sthiramati, Sūtrālaṃkāravṛttibhāṣya: P Vol. 108, Mi 89b7-94a39. MahSūtr 65 also contains a model called the five-fold path of spiritual praxis (pañcavidhā yogabhūmiḥ), but in spite of the terminological differences, it basically describes a similar spiritual progression. 18 19 Notes 77 MahSūtr 24. 78 MahSūtr 24 (emended on the basis of the Chinese translation.) 79 It is impossible to give a satisfactory account of the immense repertory of Tantric meditations in a few pages. The relatively small number of edited texts of South Asian Tantric Buddhism makes the attempt even more challenging. For a comprehensive overview, I recommend Ray 2002 (especially pp. 111– 325). Though not exactly a historical monograph and relying substantially on Tibetan interpretations, the book is a reliable introduction to the Tantric meditative techniques and path of spiritual cultivation. See also Hopkins 2008. 80 Guhyasamājatantra 17–19. 81 In spite of its frequent citation in modern literature, this quadruple classification may not have been so common in South Asia where a number of various models co-existed (see Dalton 2005; Williams et al. 2012: 151–153). It gained popularity in Tibet, from the twelfth century onwards, being mainly associated with the New Schools (gsar ma). The Old School (rnying ma) favoured a Nine-Vehicle model (see Dalton 2005). The appellation rnal ʼbyor bla na med is often reconstructed as *anuttarayoga, but the word is not attested in South Asian sources (see Tsukamoto, Matsunaga and Isoda 1989: 55, n. 5; Isaacson 1998: 28; Sanderson 2009 146, n. 337;Williams et al. 2012: 152–153).The closest known term is yoganiruttara (e.g. Yogaratnamāla, Snellgrove ed. 156; see Tsukamoto et al. 1989: 55, n. 5;Williams et al. 2012: 152–153). (I am indebted to Prof. Harunaga Isaacson for his kind advice concerning *anuttarayoga/yoganiruttara.) 82 For this symbolism, see Wayman [1977] 1991 and Dasgupta 1958. 83 Can. d.ālī is also the name of the lowest untouchable caste as well as a title given to Śakti in a semiotic code conveying the Goddess’s transcendence of impurity (see Wedemeyer 2013: 27–29). 84 The set of six yogas (or dharmas, in Tibetan: Na ro’i chos drug) consists of the techniques of inner heat, illusory body (Skt. māyākāyā), [lucid] dream (svapnadarśana), clear light (prabhāsvara), intermediate state (antarābhava) and consciousness transference (saṃkrānti). The set is first described in the Chos drug gi mang ngag (P Vol. 82 Pu 134b2-135b1), a short text attributed to Tilopa, i.e. Nāropā’s master. (For an English translation, see Mullin 2006: 27–29.) The Tantric tradition, Buddhist as well as Hindu, also developed another set of practices similarly named the ‘six-fold yoga’ (ṣaḍaṅgayoga) (e.g. Guhyasamājatantra Ch. 18, ver. 157). For a historical overview of this set, see Wallace 2001: 25–30. See also Nāropā’s Sekoddeśaṭīkā, 109–156. 85 The text is extant only in Tibetan translation: Snyan rgyud rdo rjeʼi thigs rkang; P Vol. 82, Pu 140b1– 142b5). For an English translation, see Mullin 2006: 33–41. Unless otherwise indicated, technical terms in this section are given in Tibetan. 86 The qualifications required for initiation into the technique show that the six yogas were conceived as an advanced practice in the Cakrasaṃvara Tantric tradition. 87 For English translations, see Mullin 1996 and Mullin 2006: 93ff. On the development of Nāropā’s contemplative legacy in Tibet, see Kragh 2015. The yoga of inner fire is still practised and taught by modern Tibetan(-trained) masters (see, for instance,Yeshe 1998). 88 P Vol. 82, Pu 140b8. 89 The latter is, of course, a defining feature of the entire South Asian spirituality since Vedic times. For mantras and dhāraṇīs in Buddhism, see Nattier 1992: 158, 201–202n9. One can also mention in this context the protective formulae (paritta) already attested in the Pali canon and the mystical syllabaries (arapacana) found in Mahāyāna literature. 90 Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa 55. 91 P vol. 161, Wa 1-210a7. For a partial English translation, see Dalai Lama, Tsong-kha-pa and Hopkins [1981] 1987. Cf. also Hopkins 2008: 117ff. for a detailed presentation of mantra meditation. 92 See Dalai Lama et al. [1981] 1987: 141–148. 93 See Buddhaguhya, bSam gtan phyi ma rim par phye ba rgya cher bshad pa (*Dhyānottarapaṭalaṭīkā) (Commentary on the Manual of the Superior [Stage of] Meditation), P Vol. 78 Chu 29b6-8. Cf. Dalai Lama et al. [1981] 1987, 161. 94 I rely here on Wedemeyer’s (2007) excellent edition, translation and study. Another representative model of Tantric spiritual cultivation, which unfortunately cannot be presented here, is found in the chapter on Spiritual Accomplishment (Sādhanapaṭala) of the later esoteric work Kālacakratantra (pp. 141–199). For an English translation, see Wallace 2010. 95 These are the so-called Tantric Nāgārjuna and Tantric Āryadeva, different from the Madhyamaka namesakes (see Wedemeyer 2007: 9–14). According to the Tibetan tradition, there are six major lineages based on the Guhyasamājatantra, Nāgārjuna’s and Buddhajñānapāda’s lines of transmission being the major ones (see Sakai 1974: 1, 4, 8–9, etc.). 19 20 Notes 96 The same paradigm is shared by many texts in the corpus of ‘Wisdom Yoga-Mother Tantras’ (Shes rabs rnal ʼbyor maʼi rgyud) (see Tsukamoto et al. 1989: 45) and numerous works compiled in Tibet. In his account of the six yogas, Nāropā, who follows the Cakrasaṃvara, i.e. the Mother-Tantra tradition, also mentions the stage of generation. 97 These are the terms preferred by Nāgārjuna (Pañcakrama 1, ver. 2). The Guhyasamājatantra uses utpattika and utpannaka (Ch. XVIII, ver. 84, p. 119) or sāmānyasādhana ‘general accomplishment’ and (uttama[sādhana]) ‘supreme accomplishment’ (ch. XVIII, ver. 139–140, p. 123). The latter stage is said to consist in the six-fold yoga (ṣaḍaṅgayoga), i.e. [sense] withdrawal (pratyāhāra), meditation (dhyāna), control of inner energy (prāṇayāma), retention (dhārāṇa), recollection (anusmṛti) and contemplation (samādhi) (for an English translation, see Wayman [1977] 1991: 41–50). 98 Pañcakrama 1, ver. 2. The five steps include vajra-recitation (vajrajāpakrama), mind purification (cittaviśuddhikrama), self-consecration (svādhiṣṭhānakrama), complete awakening [through/to] bliss (sukhābhisaṃbodhi) and conjoining (yuganaddha). 99 The polysemic vajra ‘adamantine’, etc. suggests the highest level of Tantric initiation. 100 Wedemeyer translates -viveka as ‘isolation’, i.e. a process that makes the body, speech and mind ‘isolated from the ordinary appearances privileged by ordinary pride’ (Wedemeyer 2007: 71).This level belongs to the generation stage and is equated with the eighth stage on the bodhisattvic path. 101 See Guhyasamājatantra 104, ver. 50. The Five Buddhas are Akṣobhya, Vairocana, Amitābha, Ratnasambhava and Amoghasiddhi. 102 CMPr 350–354. 103 CMPr 369–380. 104 The completion of this level is equated to the tenth stage on the bodhisattva path (CMPr 449), which in Mahāyāna marks the attainment of Buddhahood. The Vajrayāna path goes beyond this exoteric level. 105 CMPr 401–413. 106 CMPr 427–436. 107 CMPr 440–443. 108 CMPr 451. 109 CMPr 453. 110 See Wedemeyer 2007, 66. 111 AKBh 334. 112 Citation/reference conventions. For Sanskrit texts, I note the pages of the modern editions listed below. For Pali texts, PTS edition volume and page number. For Tibetan texts, Peking (P) edition of the canon, volume, traditional folio number, recto(a)/verso(b), line. For Chinese texts, Taishō (T) edition of the canon, volume, page number, segment (a, b, c), occasionally followed by column. 113 In case of reprints, the original date of publication is given in square brackets. 114 The citation is made from the abstract posted online. 1 I am referring to the widespread view, although not supported by older Sanskrit texts, that ‘yoga’ is something pure and respected, while ‘tantra’ is black magic, employing antinomian means and being radically different from yoga both in aims and methods. 2 This chapter has a substantial glossary for the reader to consult, and so not every term is translated and defined in the main body of the text. 3 These techniques are performed via yogic procedures and from a distance, but preliminary contact between the practitioner and the victim should be established (Serbaeva 2015a). 4 The subchapters of some longer chapters disappeared at an early date and, calculating the length of the surviving subchapters, one comes close to five thousand verses (see Serbaeva in 2007 and 2019). 5 See glossary. 6 JY.1.4.31a. Suṣumnā as goddess can be found in JY.1.15.85ab. 7 First noted by Alexis Sanderson, personal communication 2009, see SVT.10.1226. This passage is addressed JY.1.5.5ab. 8 JY.1.9.231. 9 The name of the text is not mentioned in the JY. 10 JY.1.12.5. 11 The yogic body in the JY is not limited by the boundaries of the physical body, and some points, which the consciousness of the yogi is supposed to reach in successful practice, are to be found above his head. One of the most important is called dvādaśānta, ‘the end of the twelve [fingers above the head]’. 20 21 Notes 12 JY.1.12.50. This is a rather rare representation, since the usual one would be based on the three eyes of Śiva, standing respectively for the sun-moon-fire and having 12-16-10 aspects. 13 JY.1.12.62ab. 14 For example, JY.1.12.63. The state of Sadāśiva is promised throughout the first part of the chapter, and Sadāśiva is the main deity in the Saiddhāntika tradition, i.e. this chapter can be an adaptation of an early Siddhāntika text on yoga. 15 Silburn, 1988/[1983]: 108. In her sources, the SVT and the Śaktivijñāna, these gods are still in masculine. 16 JY.1.12.85cd-86. 17 JY.1.12.104cd. 18 JY.1.12.106cd. 19 Kanda is a bulb in which kuṇḍalinī is to be found in inactive state, and from which it rises upon awakening. 20 JY.1.12.139cd-140ab. 21 To take only the NTS for example, pp. 101–102, summary, pp. 495–501 translation of NTS.4.119-114b. 22 JY.1.12.151cd-154ab. 23 On mudrās in the JY, see Serbaeva 2013b. 24 JY.1.12.155cd-166. 25 JY.1.12.192 further repeated and expounded at JY.1.12.198cd-201ab. The lists of siddhis are repeated more than twice in the same chapter and they do not fit each other, which suggests that more than one text was used in compiling this chapter. 26 JY.1.12.204. Further on in the JY there are techniques of opening the central channels, which seems to be done from the junction point between iḍā and suṣumṇā. Joining of the channel also refers to a particular procedure in the Śaiva initiation, in which the bodies of the guru and of the initiand are connected by a long herb. On that see Brünner, SSP, vol. 3. The cakras in this context appear to be a sort of blockage, virtually synonymous with ‘knots’ or granthis. 27 JY.1.12.290cd. 28 JY.1.12.292cd. 29 JY.1.12.299. 30 NTS, pp. 43–44.The fact that ṣaḍadhvan appears to be a developed concept in the JY places this part of the JY later than the seventh century CE, according to the evidence of the Svāyambhuvasutrasaṇgraha. On the six ways in the Nātha texts, see also Silburn 1988/[1983]: 130. 31 JY.1.12.393-395ab. 32 JY.1.12.396-397ab. 33 JY.1.12.419cd-420. ‘Five hoods’ or ‘five-hooded serpent’ is a Śaiva term for five prāṇas, used often in the Krama-influenced texts. 34 JY.1.12.421-427ab. One also finds ‘in the manner of a serpent’ in Haṭhayogapradīpikā 3.108ab, which echoes the Ūrmikaulārṇava 2.104ab (sarpavat kuṭilākārā). 35 JY.1.12.427cd-429ab. 36 JY.1.12.429cd-431. 37 JY.1.12.432-435ab. 38 JY.1.12.438a: ṣaḍrasākṛṣṭir atulā. Blood, skin, meat, etc.These are the essences that are being extracted by the yoginīs from the victims, and by the sādhakas to please the yoginīs. 39 JY.1.12.438b Ṣaḍūrmi śrutir uttamāḥ. Likely, some of the ‘revelations’ are mentioned in the TST.6.176– 178, namely upadeśa, saṃpradāya, kaulika, obtained from various kinds of yoginīs. 40 JY.1.12.435cd-439. 41 JY.1.12.440-448. 42 These being Brahmā,Viṣṇu and the three forms of Śiva being present in the knots of the subtle body. 43 JY.1.12.449-452ab. 44 The names of all of the six cakras from mūlādhāra to sahasrāra can be found in the JY, but they are not listed in succession, suggesting that the sequence was already well known and self-evident. 45 JY.1.12.452cd-JY.1.12.453ab. 46 JY.1.12.453cd-454ab. Ṣaṭka 3 mentions three vyomas only, and these correspond in the names to the three kinds of āveśa here. See next note. 47 JY.1.12.454cd-458. On three pervasions JY.1.12.458ab: evam aikātmyasaṃpattyā śākta śāmbhavam āṇavam. These three kinds of pervasion were taken into TĀ by Abhinavagupta, see TĀ.1.168–170, etc. 48 JY.1.12.459ab. 49 JY.2.8.27-29. 21 22 Notes 50 JY.2.8.32cd-35ab. 51 May be identical with the Devīyāmala. 52 Stobha is a sort of spontaneously occurring suspension of the discursive thought with some bodily effects. It is considered positive, and also happens in the Śaiva initiation. JY.2.12.21. 53 JY.2.12.76cd-78ab. Nistaraṅga, or ‘waveless’ state, is the synonym of the absolute state of consciouness in the Krama tradition. JY has blocks of chapters that propound the Krama in the last three ṣaṭkas. 54 The whole passage JY.2.13.39-54. Paravedam in verse 45ab is likely paravedham. There is a confusion in all Nepalese manuscripts between vedha- and veda-, i.e. ‘piercing’ and ‘knowledge’. See also 48ab: prabuddhā vedayet sarvam ābrahma[I ā]bha[I u]vanāntikam, and 50cd, tadā vedayate jagat. 55 BG11.10=MBH.6.33.10a. 56 JY.2.23.70cd-73. 57 JY.3.8.109ab. 58 JY.3.8.107cd-108ab. 59 JY.3.8.193ab. 60 The sūkṣma manipulations allow not only to kill or control at a distance, but also to initiate a disciple; see Serbaeva 2010b, and JY.3.8.256-269ab. Similar procedures are further described in JY.3.29. 61 It is a paradoxical chapter, in which the sādhaka is supposed to desire to be transformed into a brahmarākṣasa, who are seen both in the purāṇas and the tantras as the monsters of a lower kind, often devouring humans. 62 This expression occurs at least three times in the JY (3.26.110ab and 4.31.24ab and 28cd) and besides that in the Krama texts such as DDŚ.49ab and KSB.5.9ab. The most ancient reference, however, is the NS.13.20cd, discovered by Sanderson. 63 JY.3.15.3cd 64 JY.3.15.11-12. 65 JY.3.15.22ab and 23. 66 JY.3.15.28cd, śaktipiṇḍaṃs tadā bhavet. 67 JY.3.15.32cd-33. On liberation and jīvanmukti in the JY see also Serbaeva 2010a. 68 JY.3.15.74cd-83ab. 69 Silburn 1975: 111–115 on the twelve Kālīs, each going to a peaceful state, opening the way for the next one in the ancient Kramastotra. 70 JY.3.15.109cd-118. 71 JY.3.15.119ab-126ab. 72 JY.3.15.126cd-127ab. 73 JY.3.15.127cd-128ab. 74 JY.3.15.128cd-129ab. 75 JY.3.15.130cd-131ab. 76 JY.3.15.133cd: so[‘]haṃ mayaiva […] haṃsoham eva ca. Word play haṃsa (swan) - so[‘]haṃ ‘I am that’, which shall permeate all later yogic texts. 77 JY.3.15.134cd-135ab. 78 JY.3.15.137cd-138ab. 79 JY.3.15.145cd-146ab. 80 JY.3.15.146cd-147ab. 81 JY.3.15.147cd. 82 JY.3.15.186cd. 83 JY.3.15.187cd. 84 JY.3.15.188ab. 85 JY.3.15.203ab. 86 JY.3.15.214, 215cd-16ab. The switch from ‘I’ to ‘he’ is indeed confusing, and can be explained by asserting that two separate texts were combined at this point: one describes the experience of a yogi in nistaraṅga state, and the other one tries to justify the practice of nectar extraction, by presenting it as a non-dual and thus uncontradictory transfer of the essence between the world and the beings therein and the principles of sun and moon. 87 JY.3.15.222ab. 88 JY.3.15.261. 89 JY.3.16.28cd-31. 90 Note the preference for the iḍā-suṣumṇā junction in the ṣaṭka 1. 91 YSP, edited by Sanderson; draft used with permission. 22 23 Notes 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 JY.3.29.50-51. JY.3.29.55ab. JY.3.29.55cd-58ab. JY.3.29.58cd-59ab. I believe that the central channel is considered to be related to the upward flow of prāṇa, while the other two, iḍā and piṅgala, lead the prāṇa downwards. Another way to interpret this is simply left (iḍā) as opposed to right (piṅgalā). JY.4.11.2cd-4. JY.4.31.28. JY.4.31.27. On the technicalities of meeting the yoginīs see Serbaeva 2015b and 2013a. The text is amṛtākṛṣṇakarṣayet in three surviving manuscripts; the fourth one lacks this passage. Conj ecture: amṛtākṛṣṭi+[ā]karṣayet, i.e. amṛtākṛṣṭyākarṣaet. Amṛtākṛṣṭi is a typical term for this practice in JY, also occurring in JY.2.17.607ab and JY.2.17.667ab, but also in the Tantrasadbhāva 3.210ab and the Ṣaṭsāhasrasaṃhitā 19.47cd. This is done by a particular eye movement. JY.4.31.29-31ab. JY.4.31.31cd-33ab. JY.4.31.33cd-34. JY.4.34.37ab and 42. Contrary to the practices in ṣaṭka 3, which can be in brief be termed vampiric blood extractions, here the nectars are sexual liquids. At least judging from the nectar appellation and the definition of the yoginīs, these are not the same traditions. JY.4.34.69-71ab. JY.4.34.71cd-74. See parallel in TST.15 and KMT.25 reinterpreting all cremation ground symbols and objects as being internal and kuṇḍalinī-related, and JY.4.34 here. Thanks to Jason Birch, James Mallinson, Adrián Muñoz, Suzanne Newcombe and Karen O’BrienKop for reading and commenting on this chapter. This chapter was financially supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 647963 (Haṭha Yoga Project). The text refers to itself as the Haṭhapradīpikā (‘lamp of haṭha’) rather than the common title Haṭhayogapradīpikā (‘lamp of haṭhayoga’), by which it is known in some commentaries and in modern publications (see Birch and Singleton Forthcoming). I draw extensively on the ground-breaking research into the early haṭha corpus of James Mallinson, and also on Jason Birch’s studies of post-fifteenth-century haṭha. To a lesser extent, this chapter includes my own research into the wider yoga traditions in Mallinson and Singleton 2017. See Li, Chapter 26 in this volume. On the history of textual criticism in Indology and European philology, see Witzel 2014. Such, as we will see, is the case with the originally Vajrayāna Buddhist Amṛtasiddhi, which was later assimilated into a Śaiva context. Bronkhorst 2007; see also Mallinson and Singleton 2017: xiii-xv. Birch (2019) argues that the reason for this simplicity was that early haṭhayoga was shaped by its transsectarian status as an auxiliary practice for people of various religions. In modern yoga, the term ‘subtle body’ is often used to refer to these features of the yogic body. However, as a translation of the Sanskrit term sūkṣmaśarīra, ‘subtle body’ does not refer to the features of the yogic body as described in haṭhayogic texts, which may sometimes in fact be gross, physical phenomena. We have therefore chosen the term ‘yogic body’ to refer to those locations and passages of the body of the yogin through and upon which the methods of haṭhayoga work. For further discussion, see Mallinson and Singleton 2017, chapter 5. In the seventeenth-century Haṭharatnāvalī, for example, certain haṭhayogic methods of cleansing the physical body are also said to purify the cakras (1.61). For a more comprehensive treatment of the texts and their contents, see Mallinson forthcoming. On which see the forthcoming critical edition of the Amṛtasiddhi by Mallinson and Szántó. Because the Dattātreyayogaśāstra adds more techniques and is more syncretic than the Amaraughaprabodha it is probable that the Dattātreyayogaśāstra is the later text. I thank Jason Birch for this insight. Birch (2018: 107, fn. 13) has argued that the first four chapters and the fifth chaper of the Śivasaṃhitā were probably different works, united at some time (perhaps, after the Haṭhapradīpikā but before the seventeenth century), which may help to explain these inconsistencies. 23 24 Notes 14 They are swallowing a long strip of cloth in order to cleanse the stomach (dhauti), enema (basti), nasal cleansing with thread or water (neti), staring until the eyes water (trātaka), rotating the abdominal muscles to stimulate digestion (nauli) and a form of vigorous breathing (kapālabhāti). 15 The complex or non-seated postures are uttānakūrmaka, dhanurāsana, matsyendrāsana, paścimatānāsana, mayūrāsana, kūrmāsana and kukkuṭāsana. 16 Relative, that is, to āsanas. They are, in order of their appearance in the text, sūrya, śītalī, bhastrikā, ujjāyī, sītkārī, bhrāmarī, mūrcchā and plāvinī. 17 The ten are: mahāmudrā, mahābandha, mahāvedha, khecarī, uḍḍīyāna, mūlabandha, jālandhara, viparītakaraṇī, vajrolī and śakticālana. 18 The Dattātreyayogaśāstra warns that accumulating (and demonstrating) special powers will attract unwanted disciples who will keep the yogi from his practice and turn him into an ordinary man (101–106). 19 Grinshpon (2002) argues that the liberation of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra is equivalent to complete ontological death. 20 For a range of interpretations of samādhi’s meanings in yoga texts, see Mallinson and Singleton 2017: chapter 9. 21 The text also names the following terms as synonyms: unmanī, manomanī, amaratva, tattva, śūnyāśunyā, paraṃ padam. 22 On traditions which understand rājayoga to stand in opposition to haṭhayoga see Birch 2011. 23 Unless otherwise noted, the statements in this section are all drawn from Bevilacqua 2017. 24 This understanding of haṭhayoga first appears in textual sources in the Yogabīja. 25 Unless otherwise noted, the statements in this section are drawn from Singleton 2010. 1 Following Clémentin-Ojha (2006: 536), I use the term ‘ascetic’ as a generic term and the term ‘renouncer’ as a translation of saṃnyāsī. This latter Sanskrit term can refer either to the ‘twice-born who has entered the fourth Brahmanical stage of life’ (āśrama) and to a member of an ascetic lineage whose rules of conduct, though modeled on the former’s pattern, have integrated later sectarian developments’. This distinction is important since ‘not all Hindu ascetics are strictly speaking renouncers’. 2 Although it can be traced back to earlier times, Hindu reformism was most evident in the second half of the nineteenth century, once the political regime following the repression of the Sepoy Revolt (1857–1858) had been established. Literature on Hindu reformism is vast; for a brief synthesis on the upheavals it led to, see Ray (1995) and for an up-to-date bibliography see OUP Bibliography Online. 3 On this revolt where ascetics were defending what they considered to be the rights and prerogatives of their sect, see Lorenzen (1978). 4 Although fictional, this novel had a great impact on Indian history: it became a symbol of Indian nationalism and its lyrical ode ‘Tribute to the Motherland’ (Vande Mataram) became the rallying song of many resistance fighters against colonial power (Lipner 2005). 5 My emphasis, published in the report of the twenty-first session of the Indian National Congress, reproduced in Joshi (1966: 101), quoted in Clémentin-Ojha (2019: 227). 6 For example, the Ajatananda Ashram website proclaims that the ‘monastic community does not undertake any regular or systematic activities in the world. Rather, the community is designed for those who are called to follow the path of “non-doing”, focused on an inner life of silence and solitude (nirvritti marga) (sic)’ (see ajatananda.org and Lucas 2014). 7 By the ‘politics of yoga’, I refer to the many decisions that the BJP government has enacted in order to promote yoga nationally and internationally: e.g. the founding of International Yoga Day, annual meetings of the World Ayurveda Congress, introduction of free, semi-compulsory yoga classes for civil servants and most notably for the armed forces (Banerjee 2015). 8 In return, various BJP-ruled state governments granted Ramdev huge discounts on land acquisition, echoing some old habits of kingly patronage (Bouillier 2016), and most certainly nurturing a growing ‘crony capitalism’ economy (Bhattacharya and Thakurta 2019: 212). 9 VHP is a nationalist organisation founded in 1964 that federalizes different Hindu sects. 10 For example, although the respected Swaroopananda Saraswati (b. 1924), Śaṅkarācārya of Dwarka and Jyotish pīṭhas, is often considered as a Congress supporter and VHP’s enemy (Jha 2019: 132), he supports some political claims that are in line with Sangh Parivar’s agenda. For example, he supported the removal of article 370 for Jammu and Kashmir; the reconstruction of a Hindu temple on the premises of the destroyed Babri Masjid; the Ban on the PK movie, etc. (ibid: 169). 24 25 Notes 11 At local elections in India as well as, in some cases, outside India, the success of these endeavours has been limited and heavily criticised. On the ‘Unconquerable India Party’ (Ajeya Bharat Party, ABP), founded in 1992 and based on the teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1918–2008), see Humes (2005: 70–71, 2013: 513–514). On the Proutist Bloc of India and Amra Bengali, two off-shoots of the Ananda Marga, see Voix (2010: 54–61). 12 This defence of secular India might sound surprising considering the historical role that his organisation played in galvanizing Hindu militancy together with aggravating Hindu-Muslim relations at the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century. As the head of the Arya Samaj he supported the Congress in the 2019 elections (Scroll.in 2019). 13 For studies on her movement, see Warrier 2003a, 2003b, 2005; Lucia 2014a, 2014b. Other important examples are Shri Shri Ravi Shankar (b. 1956), founder of the Art of Living in 1981; H.H. Pujya Swami Chidanand Saraswati (b. 1952), head of the Parmath Niketan ashram in Rishikesh; Jagi Vasudev (alias Sadhguru, b. 1967), founder of the Isha Foundation – to name just three important ones. 14 This explain why many sects, from the time of their first appearance – with early pre-medieval groups such as the Ājivikas, the Jainas and the Buddhists – have often been seen as protest movements contributing to the development of a ‘counter-culture’ in South Asia (Thapar 1978, 1979). 1 This chapter was financially supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 639363 (AYURYOG). 2 There are suggestions that some early ayurvedic institutions might have included Patañjali in their syllabuses for vaidyas. For example, the Mumbai-based Prabhuram Ayurvedic College (established in 1896 as the Aryan Medical College), claims to have been teaching this from the late nineteenth century (Ayurved Sadhana 2018). 3 The Maharishi’s organisations are vast and varied – at the time of his death he was worth an estimated £2 billion (Webster 2012). Most associated organisations are prefaced by the title ‘Maharishi’ and or ‘Vedic’ and or with ‘TM/Transcendental Meditation’ but there are some notable exceptions, e.g. The Natural Law Party (a political party est. 1992), the Global Financial Capital of New York (established 2007) and the Global Country of World Peace (established in 2000, which currently has physical locations in the USA, Ireland and The Netherlands). 4 For a richer history of relaxation interventions in the biomedical context, which has a much longer genealogy, see Nathoo 2016. 5 For more on the development of MBCT see Chapters 3 (Husgafvel) and 18 (Rahmani) in this volume; for a summary of current physiological and cognitive science research on yogic and meditation interventions see Chapters 30 (Schmalzl et al.) and 31 (Federman) in this volume. 6 This dating is much contested, but I am following Kędzia 2017: 124n16 who follows Goodall 1998 and 2000 in the dating. It is more rhetorically associated with the Siddha medical tradition rather than offering recipies or pratical prescriptions. 7 Priyanka Pathak-Narain (2017) has detailed many allegations of illegal practices associated with Ramdev’s rise to power that have not been subject to legal proceedings. 1 Some part of this chapter is taken from my PhD thesis, which I completed at SOAS University of London in 2017. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Professor Peter Flügel who, as my supervisor, guided me at every stage of my thesis. I would also like to thank Dr. Suzanne Newcombe and Dr. Karen O’Brien-Kop for their suggestions and comments on the early draft of this chapter. 2 SthāS, 3.13. tivihe joge paṇṇate, taṃ jahā- maṇa-joge, vai-joge, kaya-joge. 3 These yogic methods include, but are not limited to, abandonment of body (kāyotsarga), meditation/ concentration (dhyāna), ascetic heat (ātāpanā), various stages of renunciation (pratimā), cultivation (bhāvanā) and contemplation (anuprekṣā) on dogmatic subjects. 4 Jain canonical texts present difficulties related to dating and chronology. The final redaction and documentation of the Śvetāmbara canon was attempted around one thousand years after Mahāvīra’s liberation (nirvāṇa).The redaction of most of them is said to have been completed during the middle of the fifth century CE at the Vallabhi Council under the leadership of Devardhigaṇi. Before this council, the Jain canons are implicit as they were preserved through an oral tradition. For more information see, Dundas ((1992/2002: 22–23). 5 Prakrit is the language of Jain canonical literature. 6 SūC, p. 54. yogo nāma saṃyama eva, yogo yasyāstīti sa bhavati yogavān. 7 SūC, p54. jogā vā jassa vase vaṭṭaṅti sa bhavati yogavān ṇāṇādīyā. 8 YS, 3.4. 9 SūC, p 55. athavā yogavāniti samiti-guptiṣu nityopayuktaḥ, svādhīnayoga ityarthaḥ. 25 26 Notes 10 DvS(HVṛ), The term svādhyāya-yoga is a specific practice of fasting for scriptural study. It is known as ‘yoga-vahana’. For more detail, see Hāribhadrīya Vṛtti (p. 281). 11 SmS, 32.1. 12 Oxford Dictionary, p. 2217. 13 Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p. 760. 14 SūS, 1.15.5. bhāvaṇā-joga-suddhappā, jale ṇāvā a āhiyā | ṇāvā va tīra-sampaṇṇā, svva-dukkhā tiuṭṭati || 15 A bhāvitātmā is a self-cultivated ascetic, who practices various yogic forms. More detailed description about bhāvitātmā ascetic can be seen in Bhagavati-sūtra (BhS, 3.205). 16 PVS, see detailed description for the bhāvanā of the first vow, non-violence (ahiṁsā), 6.16–21; the bhāvanā of the second vow, truth (satya) 7.16–21; the bhāvanā of the third vow, non-stealing (asteya) 8.8–13; the bhāvanā of the fourth vow, celibacy (brahmacarya) 9.6.11; and the bhāvanā of the fifth vow, non-grasping (aparigraha) 10.13–18. 17 DyŚ, 30. 18 DvS, 8.38. See more detail about pratipakṣabhāvanā in O’Brien-Kop 2018. 19 TS, 9.19–20. 20 According to Jain tradition Mahāvīra (599-527 BCE) was the twenty-fourth in a series of ford-maker (tīrthaṅkara). For more detailed discussion on Mahāvīra’s meditation, see Mahāprajña 1978; Bronkhorst 1986, 2000; Sāgaramala 2010; Pratibha Pragya, 2017. 21 The Ācārāṅga-sūtra’s eighth chapter was lost and for this reason there is no eighth chapter in the Indian edition, but Jacobi presents the ninth chapter as the eighth chapter in his edition. 22 chadmastha-kāla is a period before enlightenment. Here chadmastha tīrthaṅkara means a non-omniscient self, who is under the veil of ghātikarma and heading to be a ford-maker (tīrthaṅkara) in the same life. 23 The term jinakalpa denotes a solitary mode of ascetic practice, which is in this current day no longer in practice. 24 ĀS2, 1.8.1.5. 25 ĀS2, 1.8.1.6. 26 ĀS3, 1.8.1.4–5. 27 Jacobi mentions that ‘tiriyabhitiṃ’ is left out in his translation. He could not understand the exact meaning of this term and suggests: ‘so that he was a wall for the animals’ (fn. p.80). 28 ĀSC, p. 301. 29 Ṭhāṇa, 4.60. 30 UttS1, 30.35. 31 TS, 9.28, ārtta-raudra-dharama-śuklāni. 32 TS, 9.30, pare mokṣahetū. 33 Two negative dhyānas are discussed above. 34 There are five bhāvanās of malevolence, the behaviour and conduct of one whose psyche is imbued with evil disposition (UttS, 36.256). 35 There are many examples of afflicted (ārtta) and wrathful (raudra) meditation available in the Jñātādharmakathā-sūtra (e.g. JñāDS, 16.62–63 and JñāDS, 16.67). 36 The third category of meditation has two terms ‘dharma’ or ‘dharmya’; dharma is used in TS and Sarvārthasiddhi employs dharmya. Here dharma has many meanings such as ‘nature of reality’ and ten types of dharma mentioned in SthāS (10.135). 37 Tattvārtha-vārtika, ‘dharmādanapetaṃ dharmyaṃ’. (TS, 9.37. Tattavārtha-vārtika, quoted in Maṅgalaprajñā, 2003: 65) 38 JñA, 31.18. 39 Tattvārthabhāṣyānusāriṇī ṭīkā, 9.37. 40 TS, 9.42 pṛthaktvai-katvavitarka-sūkṣmakriyāpratipāti-vyuparatakriyānivartīni. 41 Pūrvas are the collection of fourteen ancient texts in Jain canonical literature (āgama). There are numerous ways to define the term ‘pūrva’. Traditionally it means that the chief disciples (gaṇadhara) of each tīrthaṅkara composed these texts on the basis of knowledge that they gained from tīrthaṅkaras. Historically, scholars considered that these texts are teachings of the twenty-third tīrthaṅkara, Pārśvanātha. Since Ācārya Bhadrabāhu (I) was the last person who knew all fourteen pūrvas, this notion is acceptable in both the traditions of Śvetāmbara and Digaṃbara.Vajrasvāmī was the last pūrvadhara who had the knowledge of one pūrva (Wiley, 2004: 176). 42 TS, 9.40 pūrvavidaḥ. 43 Mahāvidehas are unaffected by the time-cycle and thus there are always tīrthaṅkaras in these zones; these areas are known as lands of actions (karma-bhūmi). 44 DhŚ, 65. 26 27 Notes 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 SthāS, 4.68. SthāS, 4.72. SthāS, 5. 220. YVṬī, 2. UttS1, 30.7–8, 29–30. UttS, 30.27. Ācārāṅga Sūtra 1.9.4.14. Ācārāṅga Cūlikā (ĀSII) (15.38); Ācārāṅga Cūlikā (ĀSII) (15.25). KS, 146. saṁpaliyaṁka-nisaṇṇe … Also see, Jñātṛdharmakathāḥ (JDK, 1.1.6). For further detail on Hemacandra’s āsana section see Mallinson and Singleton 2017: 101–108. YV, 1 mokkheṇa-joyaṇāo jogo savvo vi dhammavāvāro. Parisudho vinneo, ṭhāṇāigao viseseṇ. YV, 1.2. JĀ, 27.4. Śaiva Kaula lineage is a tantric school, also known as a siddha tradition. YŚ, 1.15, caturvarge’graṇīmokṣo, yogas tasya kāraṇam. jñāna-śradhāna-cāritrarūpaṃ ratnatrayaṃ ca sa. TS, samyag-jñāna-darśana-cāritraṇi mokṣ-mārgaḥ. Abhidhāna Cintāmaṇi, 1.77, mokṣopāyo yogo jñānaśradhāna-carṇātmakaḥ. See Qvarnström (2002: 102–103). The seven types of prāṇāyama are: pratyāhāra, śānta, uttara, adhara, recaka, pūraka and kumbhaka. YŚ1, 7.8. For more on these modern Jain yoga and meditation systems, see Pratibha Pragya 2017. Although Suśīlakumāra uses Arhum Yoga as the term for his method, it does not include many common aspects of yoga. In his book Song of the Soul, he noted four practices of meditation. See also Samani Pratibha Pragya’s unpublished 2017 thesis on ‘History and Method of Prekṣā Meditation’ p. 247–303. See detailed textual discussions of kāyotsarga and anuprekṣā in (Pratibha Pragya 2017). Mahāprajña uses the traditional term kāyotsarga, but to appeal to the global audience rendered it as ‘relaxation with self-awareness’ rather than in its literal meaning ‘abandonment of the body’. I have analysed the prekṣā meditation through studying its historical development, thus taking a different approach compared to scholars such as Jain 2010, 2014 and Kothari 2013 who analyse capitalism and pop-culture. Ruism, which derives from the indigenous Chinese rujia (Family of the Ru [Scholars/LiteratiOfficials]), is a closer approximation of the tradition’s self-conception. In contrast, ‘Confucianism’ is a colonialist and missionary construction derived from ‘Confucius’, which is the Latinised version of the honorific name of Kongzi (Master Kong). The latter was a formative influence on and key representative of Ruism. For my comparative and theoretical reflections on this and related terms see Komjathy 2015; 2018. While beyond this contribution, I utilise praxis, which includes specific forms like meditation, in a technical sense that emphasises the complex interrelationship between views, methods, experiences and goals. Herein I explore the latter in terms of Daoist meditation. As a comparative category, ‘soteriology’ refers to views about actualisation, liberation, perfection, realisation, salvation or however a given individual or community defines the ultimate purpose of human existence. The history of Qigong, which is a modern Chinese health and fitness movement, and its relationship to Daoism is complex. See, e.g. Komjathy 2006; Palmer 2007. All of this of course begs the question of the meaning of ‘philosophy’ and ‘religion’, including the former as referring to disembodied thought and intellectual reflection. For my critical reflections on Daoism as a religious tradition, see Komjathy 2013b, 2014a. For a critical, revisionist perspective on western philosophy as centering on ‘spiritual exercises’ see Hadot 1995; also Komjathy 2015, 2018. Qi, which has some parallels to the Greek pneuma and Sanskrit prāna, may refer to physical respiration and/or a more subtle breath. It also has been rendered as ‘vital breath’ and ‘energy’. Like Dao and yinyang, I prefer to leave the term untranslated. For guidance on these various texts see Kohn 2000; Schipper and Verellen 2004; Pregadio 2008. From a Daoist perspective, the Dao, which is impersonal and amoral, has four primary characteristics: (1) Source of everything; (2) Unnamable mystery; (3) All-pervading sacred presence; and (4) Universe as transformative process (‘Nature’). In terms of comparative theology (views of the sacred), Daoist theology is primarily monistic (one impersonal reality), panentheistic (sacred in and beyond the world), and panenhenic (Nature as sacred). See Komjathy 2013b, 2014a. 27 28 Notes 9 Other terms include baoyi (‘embracing the One’), shouci (‘guarding the feminine’), shoujing (‘guarding stillness’), shouzong (‘guarding the Ancestor’) and so forth. 10 I translate xin as ‘heart-mind’ in order to indicate its psychosomatic nature from a traditional Chinese perspective, in which it is considered the psycho-spiritual center of human personhood. 11 Here I use ‘anthropology’ as a comparative category designating views of human being/personhood and ‘psychology’ as a comparative category designating views on psyche (emotion/mind/spirit/etc.). On ‘contemplative psychology’, that is psychology derived from and informing contemplative practice, see de Wit 1991; Komjathy 2015, 2018. On Daoist contemplative psychology see Roth 1991, 1997, 1999a, 2015; Komjathy 2013b, 2017. 12 The Zhuangzi is one of the most widely translated and interpreted classical Daoist texts. For reliable translations of the Neiye see Roth 1999a; Komjathy 2008a, vol. 1. I follow Roth’s text-critical edition of the Neiye, including his chapter numbers. 13 Revisionist scholars of the Zhuangzi, including A.C. Graham, Liu Xiaogan,Victor Mair and Harold Roth, identify various lineages or ‘schools’ in the received text. For a concise summary see Komjathy 2013a. 14 These instructions are being given by the Daoist Master Guangcheng (Expansive Completion). 15 The Laozi, which is attributed to the legendary Laozi (Lao-tzu; Master Lao), is the earliest title of the text that would become known by the honorific title Daode jing (Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power). Like the Zhuangzi, this work contains material from at least the fourth to second century BCE. 16 Specifically, Ge Hong (Ko Hung; Baopuzi [Master Embracing Simplicity]; 283–343), a key representative and systematiser of Great Clarity, uses the term in his highly influential Baopuzi neipian (Inner Chapters of Master Embracing Simplicity; DZ 1185). See, e.g. DZ 1185, 18.1ab. 17 Daoists generally do not visualise ‘dark energy’ because it is usually associated with illness, injury, negativity, death and the like. On an esoteric level, the black colour of the kidneys becomes purple in practice. 18 Jinque dijun (Lord Golden Tower) was a central deity in early Highest Clarity with strong messianic dimensions. Lord Golden Tower is usually identified as a manifestation of Laojun (Lord Lao), the deified Laozi and personification of the Dao. 19 This differs from the ‘organ-meridian times’ utilised in classical Chinese medicine, with the liver corresponding to 1–3am. 20 As discussed below, the fluid physiology utilised in Daoist practice is quite complex. It sometimes parallels and sometimes deviates from classical Chinese medical views. On the latter, see, eg, Clavey 1995. 21 Niwan literally means ‘mud-ball’. It is generally understood as a transliteration of nirvana, but may also derive from an alchemical substance utilised in external alchemy. On a more symbolic level, it recalls the view of realised consciousness as a lotus flower. 22 In point of fact, it is more historically accurate to see Highest Clarity methods as setting some of the foundations for Daoist visualisation practice. 23 The Yijing is an ancient Chinese text, neither Ruist (‘Confucian’) nor Daoist, and consists of sixtyfour hexagrams (six-line diagrams), which are also analysed according to the eight trigrams (three-line diagrams). Taken collectively, these are said to describe all of the changes in the universe. Each trigram and hexagram consists of solid or broken lines, which are read from bottom to top and correspond to yang and yin, respectively. In the context of Daoist internal alchemy, these become utilised to designate specific corporeal locations, vital substances and/or psychosomatic transformations. For example, the Gen-mountain trigram consists of one yang-line above two yin-lines. Under one reading, this represents the stillness of mountains, and meditation by extension. That is, the stability of earth (yin) creates the foundation for the clarity of heaven (yang). 24 Under one view of classical Chinese embryogenesis, the Governing and Conception Channels are the first meridians to form. That is, in the womb and in early stages of foetal development, human beings are a single, unified energy form. 25 A complete annotated translation of this text, with English renderings of the illustrations, is included in Komjathy 2013a. 26 Here I draw upon my 20-plus years of ethnographic study and participant-observation of modern mainland Chinese Complete Perfection monasticism as well as globalised and American Daoism. 1 Adapted from the translation provided by Nath and Gwaliari 1981: 99, para. 30.The original text reads ‘an-keh bidid in sar azu bar nakonad / va an-keh nadid in hameh bavar nakonad’. 2 A particularly beneficial – and quite accessible – resource is David Gordon White’s chapter on Muslim engagement with the Yogasūtra, specifically his analysis of the differences between the ‘standard’ Sanskrit 28 29 Notes 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 2 3 4 5 6 recensions of Patañjali’s text that scholars work with today, and the versions that al-Biruni and Abu’l Fazl apparently worked with (White 2012). This translation will be published in D’Silva and Ernst forthcoming. For a detailed review of the translation history of the Amrtakunda, see Ernst 2016: 186–228. The Baḥr al-ḥayāt is also the oldest extant source for illustrations depicting yogis in various postures. See more examples of Sufis’ interactions with yogis as seen in Mughal artwork in Diamond 2013. A groundbreaking study that uses art, architecture and material culture as a means of analysing exchange between Muslims and Hindus during the Delhi Sultanate period is Flood 2009. There are several key editions and translations of the A’in-i Akbari. See Gladwin (1777), Abu’l Fazl (1869); Abu’l Fazl (1978). Additionally, Wheeler Thackston translated both volumes of the Akbarnama (2015 and 2016, respectively). For several examples of these tales, see Digby 2000. See the following for a representative sampling: Svami 1987;Visaarada 1967; Muktibodhananda 1984. After Kugle’s translation, as found in Kugle 2007: 30. For example, the Naqshbandi tariqa has a variety of these materials, including translations and audio files with different types of dhikr. www.naqshbandi.org. Accessed 31 December 2019. Jain provides an excellent analysis of this issue, distilling the perspectives into two schools of thought, the ‘Christian yogaphobic position’ and the ‘Hindu origins position’ (Jain 2014: 131). For a representative sample of reactions, see the following articles: 11 June 2015: ‘Darul-Ulum says yoga day is alright because of similarities to namaz’: www.indiatoday.in/india/story/darul-uloom-deobandokay-with-yoga-world-yoga-day-namaz-839259-2015-06-11; 11 June 2015: ‘Darul-Ulum says yoga as exercise is acceptable’: www.hindustantimes.com/india/darul-uloom-deoband-says-ready-toaccept-yoga-as-an-exercise/story-4VAzxE53ZdD2SIgiS7RptL.html; 19 May 2016, ‘Darul-Ulum says that chanting “Om” is not allowed for Muslims, reaffirms that yoga as exercise is permitted’: www. asianage.com/india/deoband-fatwa-chanting-om-809. All accessed 31 December 2019. For an example of cutting-edge scholarship that sets new standards for future scholars working on philosophical and theological debates taking place across Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian texts from the Mughal period, see Nair 2020. Nair analyses the translation of the Laghu-Yoga-Vāsiṣṭha from Sanskrit into Persian under the sponsorship of future Mughal ruler Jahangir (d. 1627 CE), known in Persian as the Jūg Bāsisht. I would like to thank the editors of this volume, Karen O’Brien-Kop and Suzanne Newcombe, as well as Prabhsharanbir Singh, Puninder Singh, Harjeet Singh and especially Sophie Hawkins for their feedback on earlier versions of this chapter. The Guru Granth Sahib, compiled in 1604, contains the songs of six of the ten Sikh Gurus, all sing and sign in the name of ‘Nanak’: M1 = Guru Nanak (1469–1539), M2 = Guru Angad (1504–1552), M3 = Guru Amar Das (1479–1574), M4 = Guru Ram Das (1534–1581), M5 = Guru Arjan (1563– 1606) and M9 = Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675). ‘M’ stands for mahala, the ‘palace of God’s presence’, denoting the Sikh Gurus awakened subjectivity. All translations of the GGS are mine. As part of its engagement with philosophy of language, this chapter employs its own style in capitalizing terms such as ‘True-Guru’ to render notions of universality and truth. Phonetic transliterations are provided in Gurmukhi and Panjabi. Consequently, very few books have been written on the topic; for exceptions see Kohli (1991) and Nayar and Singh (2007). This is understandable given the critiques of yoga in the GGS that centre on egoism: ‘Yogis, householders, pandits, and beggars in religious robes – are all asleep in egotism’ (M3). ‘Without renouncing egotism, how can anyone be a renunciate? Without overcoming the five thieves, how can the mind be subdued? Whoever I see, is diseased: only my True-Guru-Yogi, remains diseaseless’ (GGS 1140 Bhairau M5). Elsewhere (Bhogal 2012a; 2014; 2015), I have argued that gur-sikhii and Gur-Sikh dharam were partially displaced and reframed by British colonisation and classification as a ‘religion’ named ‘Sikhism’.‘Sikhi(sm)’, on the other hand, is a decolonial moniker devised to foreground this homogenising translation and recall that pre-colonial gur-sikhii was overwritten by Sikhism in the ‘conversion’ to modernity.The parenthetical term ‘Sikhi(sm)’ emphasises the importance of retaining indigenous understandings within modernity and to seek to understand gur-sikhii through its praxis as a verb rather than its conceptual abstraction as a noun. ‘Un/learning’ refers to the fact that knowledge is often instrumentalised by the ego, group or nation, and thus becomes largely an arbitrary if not false projection, one that should be unlearned. The non-possessable ‘pluriversal’ (Mignolo 2000; 2007) is a bottom-up concept derived from across many traditions. It approaches the universal through truths that resonate across traditions – checking the 29 30 Notes 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 hubris of monolingual narrations, be they Christian, Buddhist or Brahmanic. Only those dedicated to the education required for a pluriversal outlook gain a voice to approach any supposed universal. Mignolo argues ‘that modernity occluded the pluriversal under the persuasive discourse of the universal’ (Mignolo 2006: 435). GGS 370 Aasaa M5; GGS 877 Raamakalii M1; GGS 3 Japu M1; GGS 942 Raamakalii M1; GGS 114 Maajha M3. GGS 1156 Bhairau M5; GGS 907 Raamakalii Dakhanii M1; GGS 1026 Maaruu M1; GGS 1087 Maaruu M4. See Birch’s (2013) historical overview of rāja yoga, although it overlooks the Sikh tradition. ‘The King sits on the throne within the self; He Himself administers justice’ (GGS 1092 Maaruu M3). ‘One who sees You is recognised as a householder (girasat) and as a renunciate (udaasii)’ (GGS 385 Aasaa M5). ‘He [M4], seated (as King) upon the Throne of Truth, canopy above His Head, possesses the powers of yoga (jog) and the pleasures (of the householder) (bhog)’ (GGS 1406 Savaiie mahale chauthe ke Sala). This term is borrowed from Weber (2019); although there is much in common, important differences remain. GGS 662 Dhanaasarii M1. Elsewhere these are expressed as ‘joy and sorrow’, ‘nectar and poison’, ‘honour and dishonour’, ‘beggar and king’. The jiivanmukt – that one liberated in life – ‘amidst all remains unattached’ (GGS 274 Gaurii Sukhamanii M5). ‘Truth is higher than everything; but higher still is truthful living’ (GGS 62 Siriiraagu M1). ‘God Himself ’ is the ‘great sensualist (rasiaa)’, ‘enjoyer (bhogi)’, as well as the ‘yogi (jogii)’ residing in the state of ‘nirvana’ (GGS 1074 Maaruu M5), sitting on the throne of Truth (sachau takhat) (GGS 1406 Savaiie mahale chauthe ke Sala). The divine now unites all three spheres of life: private–asceticism, public–civil society, and political–state: God is the greatest king (raaj), yogi (jogii), ascetic (tapiisar) and sensualist (bhogii) (GGS 284 Gaurii sukhamanii M5). Not seeing God within, the deluded mind looks outward, yet ‘He cannot be found by any device (upaai); the Guru will show you the Lord within your heart’ (GGS 234 Gaurii Puurabii M4). ‘When the mind is filthy, everything is filthy; by washing the body, the mind is not cleaned …/ Even if one learns yogic postures of the Siddhas, and holds his senses in check,/ still, the filth of the mind is not removed; the filth of egotism is not eliminated. ||2|| This mind is not controlled by any other discipline, except the Sanctuary of the True-Guru./ Meeting the True-Guru, one is reversed/ transformed beyond description. ||3|| Prays Nanak, one who dies upon meeting the True-Guru, shall be rejuvenated by his Word’ (GGS 558 Vadhansu M3). GGS 234 Gaurii Puurabii M4. Other major Sikh formulations of true yoga are gurmukh-jog and shabad-surat jog. GGS 972 Raamakalii Bhagat Naamdeva jii. GGS 153 Gaurii M1. GGS 359 Aasaa M1; GGS 68 Siriiraagu M3; GGS 139 Maajha M2. GGS 908 Raamakalii M3. GGS 236 Gaurii M5. GGS 219 Gaurii M9. GGS 513 Guuarii kii vaara M3. GGS 1189–1190 Basantu M1; five thieves of the ego: lust, anger, greed, infatuation and pride. GGS 71 Siriiraagu M5. GGS 4 Japu M1. GGS 3 Japu M1. GGS 1240 Saaranga M1. GGS 208 Gaurii M5; five disciples: the five senses and/or five thieves and/or five elements. Shameem Black (Chapter 2 in this volume) notes this term’s politicisation in militant Hindutva discourse. GGS 580 Vadahansu M1. GGS 1039 Maaruu M1. GGS 1026 Maaruu M1. GGS 941 Raamakalii M1. GGS 409 Aasaa Aasaavarii M5. 30 31 Notes 40 However, the early stages of the reception of yoga in Europe and North America was to demonstrate its health benefits, scientific viability and relevance to modern people. See Gopal Singh Puri (1974) as a case in point, who together with his wife Kailash Kaur Puri taught meditational and postural yoga. Thanks to Suzanne Newcombe for this reference. 41 On 3 August 1857, Frederick Douglass delivered a ‘West India Emancipation’ speech at Canandaigua, New York. 42 Figures like Yogi Adityanath, the chief minister of Uttar Pradesh, are a far cry from any actual jog, despite being also the head monk/priest at the Gorakhnath Math in Gorakhpur. He is, rather, a crude firebrand for far-right Hindutva majoritarian politics, and whose youth organization (Hindu Yuva Vahini) has instigated violence against minority, mainly Muslim, communities. The politicisation of such ‘raajyogiis’ is not my focus here. And though some may argue that Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale was similar (i.e. only political with no saintliness), I offer my rebuttal in Bhogal(2011) and elaboration in Bhogal(2012b). Here raaj-jog cannot be divorced from political violence and terrorism whether statesponsored or from freedom fighters, for the modern nation-state cannot countenance political theologies of the minorities. 43 GGS 556 Bihaagaraa M3. 44 ‘Yoga is not the patched coat [leggings], yoga is not the walking stick [yoga mat].Yoga is not smearing the body with ashes [nor done in 100 degree Fahrenheit rooms].Yoga is not the ear-rings [incense or candles], and not the shaven head [six pack abs or the splits]. Yoga is not the blowing of the horn [New Age ‘spiritual’ music]. Remaining unperturbed amidst worldly seductions – this is the way to attain yoga’ (GGS 730 Suuhii M1). Such observations can lead to humorous critiques: ‘If yoga could be attained by wandering around naked, then all the deer of the forest would be liberated’ (GGS 324 Gaurii Kabiir jii).The familiarity stems from parallels with nineteenth-century British colonial critique of jogiis, internalised by influential Indians (Singleton 2010: chapters 2 and 3). 45 See Eliade 1989 [1958]; De Michelis 2008 [2004]; Phillips 2009; Singleton 2010; Jain 2015; Mallinson and Singleton 2017. Only Feuerstein’s 2008 [1998] encyclopedic work contains a short, if problematic, chapter. 46 These terms are taken from Thompson in Horton and Harvey (2012). Others have labelled these ‘postural’ (Singleton 2010) and ‘denominational’ (De Michelis 2008) or ‘spiritual’ (Jain 2015). I use ‘Zen Mind’ and ‘Yoga Body’ as monikers denoting large transnational movements (on the one hand, New Thought, Mysticism, Spiritualism, Esotericism, Mantra-Meditation; and on the other, Body Building, Fitness Gym Culture and Modern Postural Yoga, respectively). 47 Deslippe (2012) notes at least eight ‘Punjabi Sikh yoga teachers’ that travelled to the west during the interwar period. 48 For Yogi Bhajan, see Deslippe (2016). 49 GGS 766 Suuhii M1: ‘I know nothing of tantras, mantras and hypocritical rituals; enshrining Ram within my heart, my mind is satisfied./ The ointment of naam is only understood by one who realises sach through gur-shabad’; GGS 184 Gaurii Guaarerii M5: ‘Mantras, tantras, all-curing medicines and acts of atonement, are all in the Name of the Lord (hari), the Support of the soul and the breath of life. I have obtained the true wealth of Hari’s love.’ 50 I have been engaged in a long, ongoing dialogue about this phrase, which does not occur in the GGS, with leading figures within Sikh musicology: Bhai Baldeep Singh (Chairman of the Anād Foundation, founder of Anād Khaṅḍ: Conservatory of Arts, Aesthetics, Cultural Traditions and Developmental Studies, and Dean of Faculty of Humanities & Religious Studies at Guru Nanak Dev University), as well as, and especially with, Dr. Francesca Cassio (Sardarni Harbans Kaur Chair of Sikh Musicology, Hofstra University), about my concerns along the lines of the argument put forth here. 51 www.gurmattherapy.com/, accessed 21 June 2020. Their courses include: ‘Mindfulness for Managers’, ‘Mindfulness & Health Workshops’, ‘Diabetes Management with Mindfulness’, ‘Mindfulness (MBCT, MBSR, MBI) 8 Week Courses’; see www.davpanesar.com/services, accessed 21 June 2020. 52 www.gurmattherapy.com/gurmat-therapy-html/, accessed 21 June 2020. Panesar employs a ‘groundbreaking combination of tried and tested techniques from many wisdom traditions with cognitive experiential learning exercises’, www.betweenyouandmeseva.co.uk/training/davinder-singh-panesar/ davinder-singh-panesar, accessed 21 June 2020. 53 www.davpanesar.com/, accessed 21 June 2020. The explanatory text to the video reads: ‘The first retreat focuses on Sat, the nature of authenticity … The second retreat focuses on Santokh (contentment) … The third and fourth retreats focus on emotional intelligence and emotional wisdom … 31 32 Notes 54 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 The fifth retreat focuses on discovering your specific ethical lifestyle … The sixth retreat focuses on awakening spiritual vision … Our final retreat brings together all the elements of the previous retreats to enable participants to combine their experiences and understanding towards self-actualisation, authenticity, creativity and expression. These retreats have enabled hundreds of individuals to discover their personal path to uncover their sacred self.’ Each retreat costs £249; see www.qi-rattan.com/ retreats/. https://web.archive.org/web/20181122224653/www.symran.com/about.html (accessed 20 June 2020). For a comprehensive study on various forms and models of prayer, see Chase (2005). For an account of historical/theological developments of prayer, see Hammerling (2008). For a more traditional understanding of the forms of prayer, see Cassian’s Conferences (1997: 323–363). For a practical contemporary approach to art as prayer, see Gerding (2001). For a historical overview of art in relation to Christian pastoral practice and theology, see Viladesau (2000). This goal of unceasing prayer follows St. Paul’s exhortation in 1 Thessalonians 5:17. See, for example, Polen (1994: 4–5 and 159, n. 14). Hasidic Rabbi Shapira outlines a practice of contemplative recollection in Derekh ha-Melekh (Jerusalem 1991), which he calls hashkatah (‘silencing of the conscious mind’) (5). Two other influential books on recollection are Bernardino de Laredo’s The Ascent of Mount Sion (1535) and Bernabé de Palma’s Via Spiritus (1532). For brief descriptions of these works, see Short (2007: 450–455). Only the former is translated into English (by E. Allison Peers [1950]). For Teresa’s discussion of this contemplative practice, see especially Teresa’s Way of Perfection, (1980: chs 28–31) and Interior Castle (1980), first and second mansions. For Teresa, when vocal prayer is sincerely recited with deep and loving attentiveness to whom the prayer is addressed, one can attain contemplation. She writes, ‘ it is very possible that while you are reciting the Our Father or some other vocal prayer, the Lord may raise you to perfect contemplation’ (1980: 130–131). Underhill describes what she calls the dangers of mystical Quietism: ‘Pure passivity and indifference were its ideal. All activity was forbidden it, all choice was a negation of its surrender, all striving was unnecessary and wrong. It needed only to rest for evermore and “let God work and speak in the silence”’ (1990: 325). St. Teresa also mentions how some of her novices strive to stay immersed in this blissful condition: ‘It doesn’t seem to them that they are in the world, nor would they want to see or hear about anything other than their God’ (1980: 154). Underhill and Teresa insist the mystic needs to become open to other features of spiritual Reality. For Teresa, the danger is to mistake a kind of selfisolated stupor for authentic communal rapture. Rapture is an advanced condition that involves more dynamic elements (1980: 333–334). These comments on Underhill are adapted from Stoeber 2015, especially 38. For a comprehensive and thorough study on the origin(s), history and method(s) of the prayers with the names of Jesus, including the Jesus Prayer, see Hausherr, (1978). His study shows how various short prayers with the name of Jesus started, developed and culminated in the current formula of the Jesus Prayer. For a lively and informative contemporary account of the Jesus Prayer, see Mathewes-Green 2009. Centering Prayer is supported by and spread through a worldwide organisation, named Contemplative Outreach. According to their website, it has more than 90 active chapters in 39 countries, supports more than 800 prayer groups and teaches Centering Prayer to more than 15,000 new people every year. See the website: www.contemplativeoutreach.org/about-us (accessed 8 January 2019). Keating provides complete instruction in a two-page pamphlet, which is available on the website of Contemplative Outreach, whose goal is to promote Centering Prayer and to provide resources for it throughout the world. www.contemplativeoutreach.org/category/category/centering-prayer (accessed 28 December 2018). Christian Meditation, which is supported by the World Community for Christian Meditation, has become a global practice, having spread to more than 120 countries, with approximately 3000 groups around the world. www.wccm.org/content/meditation-groups (accessed 28 December 2018). In 1976, John Main was invited to teach Christian Meditation to the Trappist monks of Gethsemani Abbey in Kentucky. The talks were first published in three consecutive issues of Cistercian Studies 12 (1977): 184–90, 272–81; 13 (1978), 75–83, under the title ‘Prayer in the tradition of John Cassian’. Later, the collected work was published with a new title, Christian Meditation: The Gethsemani Talks (1999). 32 33 Notes 16 In his writings, ‘meditation is the way of simplicity’ or similar statements frequently appear. The work of teaching meditation is, according to Main, ‘largely taken up with persuading people of the simplicity of meditation’ (Main 1982: 17–18). 17 This formal instruction ‘How to Meditate’ is found right after the ‘Contents’ of recently published books of John Main. For a slightly longer and different online version of the instruction, see www. wccm.org/content/how-meditate (accessed 28 December 2018). 18 The word maranatha is found in two places in the New Testament: 1 Corinthians 16:22 and Revelation 22:20. Main believes maranatha is ‘one of the earliest recorded Christian prayers’ (Freeman 1987: 6). 19 Saccidananda Ashram Shantivanam. www.shantivanamashram.com/about.php. (accessed 19 June 2020). 20 For a critical exploration of the possible influences of Asian meditation traditions on Centering Prayer and Christian Meditation, see Lee 2018, especially 92–139. 21 See, for example, Keating (1997: 27, 140–142, 73–74, 51, 13). 22 Such as: 3HO/Kundalini Yoga, Iyengar Yoga, Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga, Integral Yoga, Sivananda Yoga, Bihar Yoga and Bikram Yoga. 23 These groups include: Christians Practicing Yoga, (www.christianspracticingyoga.com/), Yoga Faith (https://yogafaith.org/), Holy Yoga (https://holyyoga.net/), Yahweh Yoga (http://yahwehyoga. com/), and Christian Yoga Magazine (https://web.archive.org/web/20080814150734/http:// christianyogamagazine.com/) (accessed 28 December 2018). See also the reference to these issues by Candy Gunther Brown in relation to yoga courses given at Wheaton College, a Christian evangelical school in Illinois. She describes the college’s position statement on this: ‘What redeems yoga at Wheaton is, first, that it is taught by Christians who have signed the Wheaton College Statement of Faith. Second, instructors subtract “ancient (and sometimes religious) words” from pose descriptions and add Christian belief statements: at the start or end of class, they “lead a prayer, offer Scripture or a word of spiritual encouragement.”’ In her essay Guenther Brown explores questions of cultural appropriation and imperialism, as well as implications related to possible inter-religious influences and practices. Candy Gunther Brown, ‘Christian Yoga: Something New under the Sun’ (2018: 661). 24 These issues are adapted from Stoeber 2017, especially 5–9. See also Jain’s important work focusing on some of these issues, especially that of the cultural appropriation and misuse of yoga by non-Hindus and criticisms of yoga by certain evangelical Christians (2012: 1–8; 2015: 137–140). 25 See, for example, Bakic-Hayden 2008; Clooney 2013; Cole and Sambhi 1993: 139–150; Hisamatsu and Pattni 2015; Matus 1984; Molleur 2009; Justin O’Brien 1978: 23–40; Oden 2017; Stoeber 2015; Unno 2002; Washburn 1995, especially 153–167. Also, we should note in this context that there is some current research in neuroscience that argues there is cross-cultural evidence of a neurological substrate related to contemplative-mystical experience, in terms of corresponding specific electrochemical brain states (d’Aquili and Newberg 1999; Newberg et al. 2001). 1 Framing meditation as a ‘tool’, for instance, is a common rhetorical strategy that can be seen in the discourse of both Goenka’s Vipassana movement and the mindfulness movement.This line of reasoning is empowered by three intrinsically linked ideas that strongly resonate with modern meditators: autonomy (i.e. that an individual is responsible for their own spiritual/personal development), agency (i.e. that an individual should take an active role towards their spiritual/personal development) and practicality (i.e. the specific pragmatic benefits of meditation) – all of which are juxtaposed against the concept of ‘empty rituals’ (i.e. ritualistically praying to, and relying on, an external force for a desired outcome). 2 By the ‘leading figures’ of the mindfulness movement, I am referring to a handful of famous mindfulness teachers/academics and directors of key mindfulness institutions, such as Jon Kabat-Zinn and Willem Kuyken. 3 Additionally, for the qualitative dimension of this research, we only included those individuals who scored low on both self-report scales that measured spirituality and religiosity. 4 As an epistemic strategy – that considers embodied experience as a true source of knowledge, overriding intellectual knowledge – this rhetoric undergirds much of Goenka’s enterprise for abstracting his teachings of Vipassana from the category of religion. For instance, despite the fact that Goenka’s teachings rest on various Buddhist doctrines (including dukkha, anicca, anatta, sankhara, kamma, reincarnation, etc.), he actively discourages his students from accepting them ‘blindly’. Instead, they are advised to accept these insights as ‘truths’ once they have experienced them for themselves. This rhetoric leads meditators to disassociate these ideas from ‘religious doctrine’ and the movement from ‘religion’ simply because they have experienced one of them in an embodied way (anicca). 5 For instance, Penelope [40s, UK] noted, ‘Now that I’ve looked into the science of it, now I completely believe that it helps to self-regulate the brain. It self-regulates those hormones.’ 33 34 Notes 6 A widely referenced meta-analysis (Goyal et al. 2014) suggests that mindfulness was only moderately effective in reducing symptoms of pain, anxiety, and depression. However, in this regard, it was not found to be more effective than other active treatments, such as exercise. In the context of other conditions, mindfulness proved to have low or no efficacy. 7 In 2017, I participated in an OMC Master Class,‘Mindfulness-based Interventions in the Workplace: The Role of Theory, Science and Research’, led by Willem Kuyken. At this event, I witnessed a lecture room of approximately fifty mindfulness teachers gasp as they were informed about the actual state of scientific literature on mindfulness: that the higher the quality of a mindfulness study is, the positive effects appear lesser. 8 Willem Kuyken at OMC Master Class 2017, Jon Kabat-Zinn at 2018 MiSP and Mark Williams at the Summertown Unified Reformed Church in 2018. 9 See, for example, the final sentence quoted from Juno (i.e. ‘in the “me” and “I” parts of the brain …’), where she indirectly draws from the findings of cognitive neuroscience and neurobiology regarding the locality and mechanisms undergirding one’s sense of self. The use of neuroscientific explanations (regarding notions of selfhood, etc.) can be seen in the language of Jon Kabat-Zinn (2005: 326, cited in Husgafvel 2018: 290). 10 The most frequently referenced paper by the participants involved the famous article ‘A Wandering Mind is an Unhappy Mind’ by Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010). 11 Mindfulness in Schools Project. Website: https://mindfulnessinschools.org/. Accessed 30 Dec. 2019. 12 Goenka and Kabat-Zinn both share an evangelical world-saving vision and use this idea as means to frame the promotion of their practice in other countries. In fact, a shared narrative between these two meditation masters is the idea of taking their practice ‘back to the land in which it originated’: India in the case of Goenka, and China in the case of Kabat-Zinn. 13 Kabat-Zinn’s vision of a ‘Global Renaissance’ is not specifically Buddhist, but a facet of the American New Age movement. 14 Fieldnote from a ‘Masterclass’ offered by Kuyken at the Oxford Mindfulness Centre in November 2018. 15 Jamie Bristow’s presentation at MiSP 2018, London. 16 Katherine Weares’ presentation at MiSP 2018, London. 17 The following information is available from the UK government website, Companies House: see https://beta.companieshouse.gov.uk/company/06144314/filing-history?page=4. Charity Commision reference/no. 1122517. 18 This is not to say that Goenka completely avoids promoting Vipassana as a tool to support mental health. In fact, the narrative he tells about his own introduction to Vipassana concerned his struggle with migraine. However, he considers such benefits as secondary in value and frames them as sideeffect benefits of Vipassana as opposed to the prime objective. 1 In this chapter I use the term ‘Indonesia’ for the sake of convenience, bearing in mind that this political entity is a recent (i.e. colonial and postcolonial) phenomenon that is not co-extensive with any polity or culturally homogenous region in the premodern period. 2 These concerns were prominently featured in the Indic socio-religious phenomenon we now call ‘tantrism’, which exerted a deep and long-lasting impact on the religious traditions of Indonesia. 3 In spite of this fact, and notable exceptions notwithstanding (cf., e.g. Grönbold 1983 and Vasudeva 2004), indological research has often been unwilling to take into account material from Java and Bali. For example, the most recent, authoritative and comprehensive book on yoga in South Asia (including excursuses on Tibet, China and the Islamic world) by Mallinson and Singleton (2017) completely passes over in silence the existence of yoga traditions in Southeast Asia and their relevant textual sources. The same holds true in the case of the voluminous and wide-ranging collection Yoga in Transformation (Baier, Maas and Preisendanz 2018). 4 The majority of Old Javanese literature is known to us through the Indic tradition of Balinese palmleaf manuscripts (lontar). A limited oral use of Old Javanese is found, alongside modern Balinese, in elite religious and/or intellectual milieus for mantras and ritualised textual recitation. 5 Some of these Sanskrit terms (such as, for example, the last one) may be only attested in Old Javanese literature, or may have acquired a new meaning due to semantic shift. 6 This is not a direct rendering of the famous Sanskrit epic attributed to Vālmīki, but the local retelling of a later version, the Rāvaṇavadha (or Bhaṭṭikāvya) by Bhaṭṭi (seventh century CE). 7 This is redolent of stories in the Sanskrit Pañcatantra, in which some animals imitate the practices of ascetics for their own gain (see Acri 2010). 8 See Baoesastra Djawa (Poerwadarminta 1939), s.v. ngalong. 34 35 Notes 9 See Mallinson 2016: 21 note 98, mentioning, among others, Vaikhānasasmārtasūtra and Mahābhārata. 10 The upside-down posture seemingly aimed (through the exploitation of gravity) at preventing the downward flow and loss of the life force or amṛta (see Mallinson and Singleton 2017: 90). A technique to reabsorb the semen into the body is vajrolīmudrā (see Mallinson 2018). 11 Similar practices involving standing on one leg are associated, with positive connotations, with ascetics in other Sanskrit texts, such as the Mahābhārata 3.185.4–5: see Mallinson 2016: 21 notes 98 and 107. 12 Fontein (2012: 89) describes the panel as follows: ‘Maitreya, standing on one leg in typical yoga fashion, illustrates the words: “he saw how Maitreya carried out arduous practices”. This passage seems to occur only in Prajña’s Chinese translation (T293, 832, 19)’. 13 See Ensink (1974, 1978), Grönbold (1983),Vasudeva (2004: 367–436) and the notes by Goodall (2004: 351–353). 14 However, Sanskrit verses and their Old Javanese exegeses have not been systematically studied, either individually or in comparison to similar passages from both Indonesia and India. 15 See, for instance, the system of eight ancillaries expounded in Mṛgendratantra (yogapāda, verse 3), which includes the usual six of Śaiva yoga (with the variant anvīkṣana instead of tarka, and the same order of the four first auxiliaries, from prāṇāyāma to dhyāna, as in aṣṭāṅgayoga texts) plus japa (mantra repetition) and yoga as the final one (Vasudeva 2004: 380); the intermediate system of the Sarvajñānottara, teaching six ancillaries without tarka; the substitution of tarka with āsana in the Devakōṭṭai edition of the Kiraṇatantra (58.2c–3); and the adherence to Pātañjalayoga in Suprabhedāgama (Yogapāda 3.53–56), Īśānaśiva’s Īśānaśivagurudevapaddhati (ch. 2), Ajitāgama (2.29), Makuṭāgama (11.1–21) and the Kashmirian Netratantra (8.9, 21) (see Vasudeva 2004: 370, note 5; Acri 2013: 94). 16 Kiraṇatantra, Vidyāpāda 1.23 (Vivanti 1975: 8). Note, however, that only the half-line ‘ab’ is present in the Nepalese manuscripts and the commentary of Rāmakaṇṭḥa, while it appears in later South Indian versions of the text, as well as in Tryambakaśambhu’s commentary (Goodall 1998: 221, note 188). 17 This sūtra is also attested in the Sanskrit–Old Javanese moralistic-didactic text Sārasamuccaya 415.6: yoga ṅaranya cittavṛttinirodha, kahәrәtaniṅ manah (‘Yoga is cittavṛttinirodha, the restraining of the mind’). 18 While the element Pātañjala in the title of the text may be a hint to Patañjali, the (legendary) author of the Yogaśāstra, it is more likely to refer to the last of the five pañcakuśikas or pañcarṣis, representing the incarnation of the Lord on earth. This is a reconfigured Pāśupata Śaiva motif, derived from the legend of the Lord’s incarnation at Kāyāvarohaṇa as Lakulīśa (Pātañjala’s alter-ego), the teacher of the four disciples Kuśika, Kuruṣya, Gārgya, and Maitri (see Acri 2014). 19 Namely, the references to the three kinds of pain as described in the Bhāṣya on sūtra 1.31 – those having been already defined earlier, in pp. 256.10–260.7; the definition and justification of the mechanism of karma and latent impressions found in Bhāṣya 2.13, this having been treated in pp. 272.17–274.18; the long and elaborate cosmographical excursus found in the Bhāṣya on 3.26 – cosmography having been treated already in pp. 224.1–226.11. 20 I should like to mention here that the Dharma Pātañjala, although of uncertain date, appears to have preserved – much like the other surviving Old Javanese texts of the tattva genre – an archaic doctrinal status quo, which is detectable in pre-seventh-century Śaiva texts from the Indian Subcontinent, and which has hardly survived in the extant Sanskrit Śaiva Saiddhāntika canon (see Acri 2011b; 20172: 12– 14). In this light, although the limited and circumstantial evidence at our disposal does not allow us to draw any conclusions, an analogous point could be made with respect to the form of the PYŚ reflected in the Old Javanese text. 21 In the PYŚ, sūtras 1.2 and 1.3 are generally understood to define samādhi and kaivalya, respectively, while in the Dharma Pātañjala, sūtra 1.3 is quoted in reply to a question by Kumāra about what the absorption of the yogin is like in order to become one with the Lord. 22 This is a prominent theme among the Kashmirian non-dual Śaiva exegetes, too: see, for example, Abhinavagupta’s dismissal of the auxiliaries of Pātañjala yoga, and prāṇāyāma in particular, in Tantrāloka 4.91a (early eleventh century). 23 Cf. Tattvajñāna 44 and Saṅ Hyaṅ Kamahāyānikan Śaiva pp. 75–76, which enumerate only the few postures common to early Śaivatantras: padmāsana, vajrāsana, paryaṅkāsana, svastikāsana, vidyāsana (i.e. vīrāsana or vīryāsana?), daṇḍāsana. 24 A metaphor illustrating this point, found in the Dharma Pātañjala and other Old Javanese texts, is that of the fire of yoga burning the impurity (mala) sticking to the soul. This differs from the standard Saiddhāntika view that only ritual action (e.g. dīkṣā) can burn mala. In pp. 306.13–308.12, observances are said to burn maculation (by way of the breath) just like fire burns a piece of dry wood. Vṛhaspatitattva 61.14–20 declares that latent karmic impressions (karmavāsanā), as well as mala, are burnt by yogic fire. 35 36 Notes 25 These are post-twelfth-century haṭhayoga texts, such as the Amaraughaprabodha, Yogabīja, etc., where layayoga is explicitly mentioned (Mallinson and Singleton 2017: 328–329), but also earlier tantric texts, such as the Vijñānabhairava and Vāmanadatta’s Svabodhodayamañjarī (Torella 2000). 26 See White 2004: 622–623, and Yogasūtra (3.38): ‘From loosening the fetters of bondage to the body and from awareness of the bodily processes, there is the entering of the mind into another’s body’; bandhakāraṇaśaithilyāt pracārasaṃvedanāc ca cittasya paraśarīrāveśaḥ. Cf. also al-Bīrūnī’s Kitāb Pātañjal (Pines and Gelblum 1983: 262). 27 Hardly any traces of Theravāda Buddhism and the meditation techniques associated with it have come down to us from premodern Indonesia. 28 Vṛhaspatitattva, śloka 56 and Old Javanese commentary. 29 This corresponds to the stage of śivīkaraṇa found in Śaiva Saiddhāntika ritual texts from South India. 30 My conversations with several Balinese Pedanda Śiva have confirmed Stephen’s views, as most of them regard this daily procedure as having the same characteristics, and conferring the same benefits, of meditation and yoga. 1 ‘yoga(s) rnal ‘byor: lit. ‘union in fundamental reality’’ (Dudjom Rinpoche 1991). 2 While this chapter examines various practice systems, this section focuses on the Ancient Order’s perspective. Because of significant sectarian divergences, there is no one-size-fits all Buddhist philosophy. 3 Tshig mdzod chen mo, ‘Yang dag pa’i lam dbang du gyur ba/’, 1,577. 4 Dag yig gsar bsgrigs, ‘Sgom rgyab pa/’, 445. 5 Btsan lha, ‘Bya ba rnal ma la rtsol med kyi ngang gis ‘byor/’, 141. 6 See chapter 3 of the fifteenth-century yoga manual Haṭhapradīpikā, which is on mudrās. 7 Most Tibetan Buddhist tantric traditions have been guarded with secrecy for hundreds of years, but that is slowly changing. I have permission from Namdroling to discuss this practice in a general way, but not to provide instructions or mantras. 1 I would like to make a most cordial acknowledgement and appreciation to my reviewer and editors. 2 A historian, Kuroda Toshio, theorised this Japanese medieval ruling order as kenmon taisei (system of ruling elites), in which powers of military families, noble families and temple families were mutually dependent and sometimes conflicted (Kuroda 1994). 3 The lay Buddhist Katō Totsudō (1870–1949) was also influenced by Boeckmann and Towne’s breathing methods: his book Meisōron (1905) proposes meditations for self-cultivation and self-care called shūyō (修養). 4 Members of Yōshinkai included Murai Tomoyoshi (1861–1944), a Christian sociologist; Ōkuma Shigenobu (1838–1922), the ex-Prime Minister of Japan; and Ōkawa Shūmei (1886–1957), an activist of Pan-Asianism. 5 Emanuel Swedenborg was influential in western esotericism and New Thought. From 1910 to 1914, T. D. Suzuki translated Swedenborgian books into Japanese and wrote a biography of Swedenborg (Yoshinaga 2014). 1 In general, I use lower case for generic modes of yoga and uppercase for branded forms. 2 My translation. I am quoting from an Argentinian edition. 3 However, it is worth noting that the primarily meditation-focused tradition of Siddha Yoga is also visible in Mexico (although now clearly less popular than postural yoga). These practitioners also refer to themselves as ‘yogis’ after undertaking a formal initiation from an authorised guru of their tradition. 4 The Mexican revolution was a major armed struggle that spanned more than a decade (roughly, 1910– 1920). It brought about significant changes in politics, culture, economy and education. 1 For Yoga Body, Mark Singleton defined the object of his study more specifically as ‘forms of yoga that were formulated and transmitted in a dialogical relationship between India and the West through the medium of English’ (2010: 9–10; emphasis in the original). 2 Sivananda’s influence was also strong through the English-as-a-second language correspondents Boris Sacharow (1899–1959) in Germany and Harry Dickman (born Harijs Dīkmanis, 1895–1979) in Latvia, who both further extended his influence (Fuchs 1990; McConnell 2016). 3 Adult education structures were also influential in several other European nations including Germany and Bulgaria (Jacobsen and Sardella 2020). 4 The first language of the Iyengar family was Tamil, and they also spoke Kannada. 5 A ‘Ponzi scheme’ or pyramid scheme is a common form of fraud where the initial investors profit off the ‘training’ of subsequent investors, with all the profit being made from other individuals hoping to profit from the training rather than by sales of a product to another audience. 36 37 6 More historical data about scandals involving particular groups and teachers were well-documented by media and academics, particularly in the 1970s and ’80s in the emerging field of ‘New Religious Movement’ studies within sociology of religion. Some of this literature is detailed in Newcombe (2009). 1 I am from Assam. I was first initiated in Kāmākhyā at the age of fifteen. I am a scholar-practitioner and I define myself as an insider with an outsider’s lens. 1 Many scholars have offered definitions and re-definitions of this term; for examples, see Nichols 1990, Said 2004 and Pollock 2009. Michael Witzel has defined philology as ‘the study of a civilization based on its texts’, with the aid of other disciplines such as history, anthropology, religious studies, palaeography, zoology, etc. (Witzel 2014, 16). 2 Federico Squarcini, on the other hand, argues for the Yogasūtra as an independent text (Squarcini 2015: cxi onwards). 3 As V. S. Sukthankar puts it; his critical edition of the Mahābhārata has been one of the most monumental works of textual reconstruction ever attempted. See Sukthankar 1933: cii–ciii. 4 However, see the criticisms below, as well as Joseph Bédier’s method of ‘best-text’ editing (Trovato 2014: 77ff). 5 The term archetype has been used to mean slightly different things by textual scholars; for details, see Trovato 2014: 63ff). 6 For examples of these issues in yoga texts, see the stemmata of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra (Maas 2006: lxxiii) and the Khecarīvidyā (Mallinson 2007: 11). 7 For an interesting example of this, in which editors have posited that the author himself revised the text, see Coulson and Sinclair 1989: xxx. 8 See, for example, Katre and Gode 1941, West 1973, or Trovato 2014. 9 As Trovato writes, ‘Actually, almost all existing manuals of textual criticism are useful, because they reflect the experiences of different scholars’ (Trovato 2014: 29). 10 See Robinson 2016: 196. 11 This strange proverb has been traced back to 1546, in which, originally, it states: ‘Would you both eat your cake, and have your cake?’ (Zimmer 2011) 12 For texts with very meagre manuscript evidence, this is also possible in a print format; for example, see Steinkellner and Krasser 2016. 13 As Peter Robinson has noted, few digital editions actually offer such tools, and thus are not so differentiated from print editions (2016: 193). 14 For a discussion of this ideal, see Buzzetti and McGann 2007. 15 Transcribing a manuscript assumes that the text was meant to be read; this is not necessarily true. For example, consider the practice of sealing manuscripts inside Buddhist statues. 16 See Li 2017 for an overview of this technique; Li 2018: 151ff contains a full list of filtering rules for Sanskrit texts. 17 Apart from a couple of sources which read yad. 18 For more information on how the software works, and for a digital edition of one chapter of the Prakīrṇaprakāśa, see https://saktumiva.org/. 1 This chapter was financially supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 647963 (Haṭha Yoga Project). 2 For an overview of yoga scholarship undertaken by indologists and historians of religion, see Hauser (2013b: 11–16) and Newcombe (2009). 3 Wildcroft (2020) defines this as ‘co-practice.’ 4 On the other side, Pagis’ ethnographic data on meditation illustrates how ‘despite the absence of direct verbal communication, the practice of meditation still holds important intersubjective dimensions’. He suggests that ‘covert mechanisms of silent intersubjectivity play an important role in everyday social life and require further ethnographic attention’ (2010). 5 According to Schnäbele (2013: 221), the flow of yoga students to Mysore is increasing, but the reasons why they are going has changed over the decades: in the 1960s and 1970s those who went to study with Pattabhi Jois demonstrated a more devotional attitude, while today’s younger students have a more ‘me-oriented’ attitude. 37 38 Notes 6 Yoga and bhoga have been sharply distinguished in history. Bhoga, understood as the experience of supernatural pleasures, was the aim of Śaiva groups who were followers of the Mantramārga (Sanderson 1988: 667). Mallinson notes that with the development of haṭhayoga systems the main tendency was to preserve the seeker of liberation rather than the seeker of enjoyment. Therefore, although haṭhayoga incorporated various traditions that can refer to the Mantramārga, it did away with ‘their complex and exclusive bhoga-oriented systems’ (2011b). The Haṭhapradīpikā, for example, claims that bhoga (enjoyments) are the greatest of all impediments for yoga. 7 Post-lineage yoga consists of ‘a re-evaluation of the authority to determine practice, and a privileging of peer networks over pedagogical hierarchies, or saṃghas (communities) over guru-śiṣya (teacher-adept) relationships’ (Wildcroft 2020). 8 As Voix mentions (2008: 17), a theoretically similar technique of shock seems to be used in other contemporary religious groups inspired by tantrism, as described by Sarah Caldwell concerning alleged sexual abuses involving Swami Muktananda and his Siddha Yoga (2001: 9). 9 If we look instead at works which take into consideration international or modern sādhus, the production is wide and detailed. See, for example: the work of Strauss (2005) on Swami Sivananda; the works of Persson (2007; 2010) and Pankhania (2008) on Swami Satyananda; Aveling (1994) on Swami Satyananda and Osho; and the work of Khalikova (2017) and Longkumer (2018) on Baba Ramdev. 10 A 2012 survey by Yoga Journal found that of the 20.4 million people who practise yoga in the United States, only 18 percent of them are men. (www.yogajournal.com/blog/new-study-finds-20-millionyogis-u-s. Accessed April 2019). 11 In my case, I could not spend time on personal practices, since the results would not have been of any interest for my research, and given the time needed to attain a sufficient level to be shared or compared with that of sādhus, the five years of the project would have not been enough. 12 Joanna Cook (2010) became a Buddhist nun committed to ordination and meditation. However, the members of the monastery were aware that her ordination would be limited to one year in which she would undertake anthropological research. Another case is that of Ingrid Jordt (2007), who also became a Buddhist nun for several years, focusing her attention on vipassana as a diplomatic link between Burma and the rest of the world. 13 This practical approach has been testified also by scholars working with the founders of modern transnational yoga. For example, Smith reports that Pattabhi Jois used to claim: ‘Ninety-nine percent practice, one percent theory […] practice and all is coming’ (2008: 153). 1 I would like to thank friends and colleagues for help and suggestions while writing this chapter (in alphabetical order): Lok Chitrakar, Finnian M.M. Gerety, Renuka Gurung, the Lumbini International Research Institute and its director Christoph Cüppers, Suzanne Newcombe, Karen O’Brien-Kop and Philip Pierce 2 Several scholars (including Jackson 1993; McLagan 1997: 75–81; Lopez 1998: 147–149; Harris 1999: 37–39; and Harris 2012: 19–20) have criticised the text of the exhibition catalogue authored by Rhie and Thurman; for an assessment of the exhibition, see Stoddard 2001. 3 On the ‘mystification’ of the Tibetan artist, see the discussion below. 4 See the text describing the show: www.vmfa.museum/exhibitions/exhibitions/awaken/. Accessed 20 June 2019. 5 Part of this paper is based on Bühnemann 2017. 6 On this exhibition, see https://exhibitions.asianart.org/exhibitions/enter-the-mandala-cosmiccenters-and-mental-maps-of-himalayan-buddhism/. Accessed 22 June 2019, and Durham 2015. 7 For a recent study of the Maṇḍala of the Eight Great Bodhisattvas, see Wang 2018. 8 For a discussion, see Brown 2019: 64, 96–97, 121, 205. 9 Interview with Kim Tae Hee, a researcher at the Research Center of Yoga Philosophy, Won Kwang University, Iksan, Korea, 5 June 2018. Hee instructs Samsung employees in maṇḍala colouring. 10 Quoted from Carmen Mensink’s description of a course held in Venice. See www.tibetan-buddhistart.com/italy-venice-thangka-weekend-course. Accessed 31 October 2018. 11 Interview with Dr. Renuka Gurung, a paubhā painter from Kathmandu who leads maṇḍala meditation retreats/workshops; Kathmandu, 10 August 2018. 12 The activity is taught at the Bishamondo Shourinji Temple in Kyoto; see www.veltra.com/en/asia/ japan/kyoto/a/110834. Accessed 29 September 2018. 13 For extracts from texts in translation, see Dagyab 1977: 27–28 and Wang 2018: 43, 46. For a summary of the prescriptions in the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa, see Wallis 2002: 115–125. 14 See Kapstein 1995: 258, 260; for a discussion of Kapstein’s ideas, see Wallis 2002: 92–95. 38 39 Notes 1 For a summary of Davidson’s life-long scientific research into meditation, see Goleman and Davidson 2017. Mind and Life has published several volumes that document the dialogues between the Dalai Lama and scientists. Notably: Goleman 1997; Harrington and Zajonc 2006; Kabat-Zinn and Davidson 2012. For the development of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy and its psychological theory, see Segal et al. 2013. 2 A Theravāda fifth-century commentary on mindfulness of breathing gives a similar outlook: ‘for counting, by cutting off thoughts which cling to external things, serves the purpose of establishing mindfulness in the in-breaths and out-breaths as object’ (Ñanamoli 1952: 27). 3 For a detailed discussion of attentional system in the brain, see Peterson and Posner (2012). 4 Evidence from neuroscience suggests that it is not only brain function that is altered soon after a meditation training course, but also that more stable structural changes can be detected in experienced meditators (Fox et al. 2014) 5 Mindfulness meditation has moderate strength of evidence (SOE) for improvement in anxiety, depression and pain, but the SOE effect of TM on depression is insufficient according to a detailed report that investigated the impact of meditation on psychological stress and wellbeing (Goyal et al. 2014. See in particular p. viii and table at page ES-12). 6 Kabat-Zinn himself refused to give his definition a higher status than that of a practical working definition, and has claimed that what he teaches is in fact dharma (Kabat-Zinn 2011). 7 Approach is included in the two last items that are measured in the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), which is used in research to measure levels of mindfulness.The five are: observing, describing, acting with awareness, non-judging of inner experience and non-reactivity to inner experience (Baer et al. 2006). 8 ‘Habitual patterns of experiential avoidance are one of the key planks that trigger and maintain depression. A distinctive feature therefore of MBCT is its emphasis on learning how to notice and then intentionally transform these patterns through choosing to turn towards or “approach” experience’ (Crane 2017: 39). 1 It should be noted that in certain ways the same can be said for qualitative research, but a qualitative approach often allows space for information that exists beyond the limits of any researchers’ expectations, hypotheses and quantified measurements. 2 Other examples of scholar-practitioners’ engagements with yoga on global and local levels can be found in Alter (2012), Black (2016), Lewis (2008), Atkinson (2010), Smith (2007), Lea (2009) and Chapple (2016), among others. 1 I would like to thank Lucy May Constantini, Theodora Wildcroft, Suzanne Newcombe and Karen OBrien-Kop for their comments on the first draft of this chapter. 2 According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), metonymy is a conceptual operation in which a part of a given domain of experience represents the entire domain. When we say that we ‘jumped on a bike to get to work as fast as possible’, we make the moment of mounting a vehicle stand metonymically for the entire journey from point A (possibly ‘home’) to point B (‘work’). In fact, even the term ‘work’ is used metonymically in this context – the action performed at the place where one realises the terms of one’s employment (‘working’) stands for the place itself. 3 The term proprioception refers to the sensing of the positioning of the body in space, of the relative position of body parts, as well as of their movement. Interoception refers to the sensing of internal organs and, generally, the internal state of the body. 4 A possibly similar sensation is referred to as udghāta in some texts (see Mallinson and Singleton 2017: 144). 5 Later texts also mention the upward movement of kuṇḍalinī from the base of the spine towards the crown of the head. 6 The issue of manual adjustments in modern postural yoga is a relevant topic in itself, especially in light of the current discussion of abuse (physical, sexual, but also verbal) on the part of Ashtanga Yoga and Iyengar Yoga instructors. Manual adjustments involve directing the movement of the practitioner by applying more or less forceful touch. This notion of constraint and control of one agent’s movement by another agent is in line with the early, Upanishadic construal of yoga. However, more relevant in this context is how touching a person and controlling their movement through force influences the social relations between the controller and the controlled, the boundaries of their identity as individuals (‘personal space’), as well as the enactment of power and social hierarchy. The issue of manual adjustments and their potentially abusive nature is strongly tied to the understanding of the authority of the teacher (guru) in Indian traditions, and the interpretation of this authority in translational systems 39 40 Notes of yoga practice.While extensive discussion of this topic exceeds the scope of this chapter, its signalling seems necessary in the context of yogic movement and its meaning. For an in-depth analysis of sexual abuse in Ashtanga Yoga and its social dynamic, see Remski 2019. 7 Such ‘transmission through touch’ may involve not only imparting the rules of āsana performance through tactile guidance, but also communicating the traditional relations between the guru (the teacher) and the śiṣya (the student). The absolute, unquestioned authority of the guru and the expectation for the śiṣya to faithfully submit to this authority are expressed through forceful control of the movement of the śiṣya’s body (see previous endnote). 8 For short popular summaries of Birch and Hargreaves’ work, see www.theluminescent.org/. 9 See http://hathabhyasapaddhati.org and Birch and Singleton (2019) for details. 10 Although it may not be the case with the Haṭhābhyāsapaddhati project – as it is a reconstruction of a now-defunct system of practice – film may become a way for participants in an ongoing tradition to transmit it effectively. Finnian Gerety, who has done research among contemporary representatives of the Sāmaveda tradition (the Nambudiri brahmins of Kerala), observed that both the teachers and their students use digital video recordings of Sāmavedic hymns for reference. Although written transmission is out of bounds in the case of Vedic lineages, video materials seem to be accepted – a fact that Gerety associates with the kinaesthetic character of Vedic recitation. During performance, the practitioners not only modulate their voices, but also move their torsos and heads and use a variety of gestures for the sake of accurate memorisation. It is the use of the movement of the body as a mnemonic device that guarantees unadulterated transmission of the ancient hymns. Hence film, providing an accurate representation of the sonic and kinetic patterns of correct recitation for the purpose of mimicry, becomes an accepted medium (see Gerety 2018). 1 I am grateful to the editors of this volume, the participants in the ‘Disciplines and Dialogue: The Future of Yoga and Meditation Studies’ workshop at SOAS, and Richard Williams for their thoughtful engagement with this chapter. 2 While this chapter uses ‘sound’ as shorthand for sonic practices and auditory practices together, certain sections contrast sound as sonic vibration with listening as auditory modality. Moreover, in this chapter ‘yoga’ (without italics) denotes the general category of yogic doctrines and practices; while yoga (with italics) denotes the term as used in specifics texts and contexts. Unless indicated otherwise, all unattributed translations of Sanskrit terms and passages are my own. 3 R. Murray Schafer defined ‘soundscape’ in broad terms as ‘any aural area of study’ (1993 [1977]: 7).Yet as Ari Kelman has shown, the term’s subsequent popularity has often elided Schafer’s ‘ideological and ecological messages about which sounds “matter” and which do not’ (2010: 214) – Kelman suggests that Schafer’s soundscape is fundamentally prescriptive, ‘favoring the ideal over the actual, and the interior over the exterior’ (ibid.: 223). As such, the term soundscape is well suited to yoga, which privileges ideal, interiorised practices of sound and listening; notably, Schafer himself compares yogic mantra meditation to ‘headphone listening’ (1993 [1977]: 119). 4 Previous scholars have fruitfully explored the crossroads of sound and Indian religions. To name a few key works: Staal 1986 and 1989 examine the ‘sound of religion’ and the theory, practice, and interpretation of mantras; Beck 1993 argues for ‘sonic theology’ in classical Hindu traditions of ritual, grammar and theology; Wilke and Moebus 2011 examine the interplay between sound, meaning and aesthetics in Sanskrit texts; O’Brien 2018 sheds light on the reception of Indian religion and philosophy in 1960s minimal music; and Cox 2018 theorises ‘sonic flux’ and the metaphysics of sound art with reference to Indian doctrines. 5 Alongside Bull and Back’s use of the term, Becker’s use of ‘deep listening’ (2004) to refer to the practice of entering into trance states through music is also relevant to yogic sound. 6 For convenience, this chapter will refer to the syllable in general with the capitalised form ‘OM’, while using the lowercase, italicized variants in discussions of specific passages. 7 Thus, the verse ending dhenūnām iṣudhyasi (Ṛgveda 8.69.2) is transformed in performance to dhenūnām iṣudhyaso3m (Aitareya Āraṇyaka 5.1.6; see Gerety 2015: 81). 8 According to van Buitenen (1962: 13, 21–24), the various recensions of this text have gone by different names related to the Yajurvedic Maitrāyaṇīya school, including Maitrāyaṇīya, Maitrāyaṇa, Maitrāyaṇī, Maitri, Maitrī and Maitreya Upaniṣad. 9 On maṇḍalas and meditation, see Bühnemann, Chapter 29 in this volume. 10 The high-flying goose symbolises breath already in the Kaṭha Upaniṣad (5.3). As Vogel 1962 convincingly demonstrates, haṃsa denotes a goose (not a ‘swan’ as frequently translated). 40 41 References 11 Texts such as the Khecarīvidyā and Śivasaṃhitā teach tantric mantra practices, while others like the Dattātreyayogaśāstra circumscribe mantra practice or dismiss it entirely; Mallinson and Jason Birch, personal communication. 12 According to Mallinson and Birch (personal communication), the Haṭhapradīpikā’s teachings on nāda derive from two different streams of haṭha textual tradition. 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